History of the United Arab Emirates

Early History

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Even before Britain first offered its protection to a group of several, loosely aligned sheikhdoms, the rulers of region were already autonomous monarchs who ruled over their own individual territories. At that time, the United Arab Emirates was known as Trucial Oman, and it consisted of seven emirates - Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al Quwain, Fujairah, and Ras al Khaimah. In 1882, when the British arrived, the kingdoms signed a treaty that allowed England to represent them in international matters and to provide defense.

Things continued along this vein until 1952 when the rulers of the seven sheikhdoms decided to establish the Trucial Council to formulate common policies that could be adopted by all rulers. The purpose was to bond the seven territories as a more cohesive unit, and this was the first step toward the establishment of a federation.

Discovery of Oil

It was Abu Dhabi, the largest of the sheikhdoms, that first struck gold when oil was discovered off its waters in 1958. A couple of years later, onshore drilling resulted uncovered large reserves of oil on land. In 1962, the emirate began the commercial exploitation of these reserves.

Independence

In January 1968, the British government announced its intention to withdraw military protection from the region, and in March of that year, the Trucial states formed a federation that included neighboring Bahrain and Qatar. The newly formed coalition didn't last long, however. Originally intended as an independent federation, it failed to hold strong against the interests of the seven sheikhs on the one hand and the kingdom of Bahrain and Qatar on the other. In 1971, both the latter kingdoms broke off to form separate independent states.

After the departures of Bahrain and Qatar, six of the remaining members of the federation proceeded with plans to establish an independent state, with a separate well-defined constitution. In December of that year, the United Arab Emirates declared itself a sovereign entity, consisting of six emirates - Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al Quwain, and Fujairah. The seventh emirate, Ras-al-Khaimah joined the newly formed country in 1972.

Sheikh Zayed, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, assumed position as the first President of the country. The ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Said al-Maktoum, took office as the vice president.

Today, the United Arab Emirates is one of the richest countries in the Persian Gulf region, with interests not just in oil, but also in finance, banking, and of course, medical tourism. The country has managed to forge a balance between Western-style capitalism and Islamic culture, and it has positioned itself as a regional medical tourism and healthcare hub. It attracts visitors who are impressed with the quality of its medical facilities, the wealth of amusement and tourism opportunities here, and the comforting presence of a sizable Western expatriate population.

History of the Philippines

Ancient History of the Philippines

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A large percentage of Filipinos are descended from the Austronesians, a group from modern-day Taiwan that settled in northern Luzon around 2500 BC and spread to the rest of the Philippine Islands. Despite its isolation from mainland Asia, trade flourished with Arab, Chinese, and Indian merchants over the next thousand years until the arrival of the Europeans.

European Control of the Philippines

The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the Philippians, with Ferdinand Magellan and his crew arriving in the archipelago in 1521. Political conflicts with Lapu-Lapu resulted in Magellan’s death at the hands of indigenous warriors. Migel Lopez de Legazpi, a conquistador, made his way to Cebu from Mexico in 1565 to establish the first Spanish settlement. In 1571, Manila was proclaimed the capital of the new Spanish Colony. The arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries, who worked diligently to convert most of the inhabitants, made the Spanish occupation more secure. Challenges erupted in the form of indigenous revolts, as local people tried to overthrow the Spanish invasion. Additionally, other nations, such as Britain, China, France, Japan, and Portugal, challenged Spain’s right to rule. The biggest setback for the Spanish was the temporary occupation of Manila by the British forces during the Seven Year’s War. In spite of all the attacks, the Philippines was ruled as a territory of New Spain from 1565 to 1821, when it began to be administered directly by Spain. On September 6, 1834, the Philippines officially opened up for world trade.

Unrest over Government Injustices in the Philippians

The Spanish-American war, which began in Cuba in 1898, spilled into the Philippines when Commodore George Dewey overpowered the Spanish at Manila Bay. During this time of unease, Emilio Aguinaldo declared Filipino independence on June 12, 1898, and was instated as head of state. Aguinaldo’s position was jeopardized when Spain ceded the Philippines to America upon their defeat. The Philippine-American war ensued, continuing the violence of earlier years, until the Americans captured Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901. In 1935, the Philippines became the Commonwealth of the Philippines, with plans to increase their independence over time. Those plans were rudely interrupted by World War II, when Japan invaded and occupied the islands. The Philippines finally achieved total Independence on July 4, 1946.

Modern Philippine History

Although newly independent, things did not settle down, as the government faced political instability from several rebel groups. The country did experience economic growth under the leadership of President Ferdinand Marcos in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. Unable to seek a third term however, he declared martial law and ruled by force, which led to further revolt. A prominent opposition leader, Benigno Aquino Jr., was assassinated on August 21, 1983. An election soon followed, deemed fraudulent by many, and resulted in Aquino’s wife, Corazon Aquino, being declared the winner after a military standoff. Marcos and his family fled the country, while Aquino called for a constitutional convention.

History of Hungary

Overview

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Once one of the largest medieval kingdoms in the continent, Hungary has emerged from communism to become a full-fledged democracy, a member of the European Union, and a thriving medical tourism center. Its expertise in science and technology has helped Hungary develop into a powerhouse in the dental and cosmetic tourism industries.

Prehistoric Period

Early settlers came from the Ugrian branch of the Finno-Ugrian group of people, who were believed to have settled along the River Volga. In the first millennium, these people moved south where they exchanged their nomadic ways of life for herding. As time passed, these herdsmen were joined by other tribes, and before long, they took on the name of the strongest tribe among them – the Megyars - as a collective name to identify themselves. This is the origin of the word “Magyar” that Hungarians currently use to identify their country.

In the medieval ages, Magyar had one of the largest populations in Europe, and was unified by the Magyar tribe leader Arpad, who forged these tribes into a single Hungarian nation. In 1000 AD Stephen I, a descendant of Arpad, established Hungary as a Christian kingdom and was crowned king. Under him, reforms were initiated to form Hungary into a feudal Christian state. The first great challenge this new Christian state faced was the Mongol invasion in 1241. When the Mongols retreated, large fortified castles were built as a protection against any further attacks. Through this period, descendants of Arpad continued to rule.

Modern History

In 1526, at the Battle of Mohacs, the Ottoman Empire tasted their first victory over the Hungarians. After this battle, Hungary was divided into three partitions. The Hapsburg Emperors controlled the western partition, the Turks controlled Budapest, and the southern and eastern regions (modern-day Romania) remained the "citadel" of Hungarian culture. The Kingdom would not be fully reunited again until 1718.

By the eighteenth century, winds of revolution were sweeping across Europe, and the Hungarians were not left untouched. A national revival movement for reforms emerged (like making Hungarian the official language). The years following this were marked by turmoil as the various ethnic groups began to voice their demands.

In 1918, after the end of the First World War, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed, and thereafter followed more turmoil as the Transylvanians declared themselves to be part of Romania. In the midst of this chaos, the Communists came to power with the promise of restoring the glory of Hungary with help from the Soviet empire. Under this new regime, housing, transportation, and agricultural and commercial land were nationalized. Russian interference in Hungary sparked resentment. In 1956, the Hungarian revolution marked by a blood bath in Parliament Square, led to revolutionaries taking over the pro-Soviet Hungarian Worker’s Party. The Party declared it would work towards a slow democratization of Hungary, and made many notable changes, including severing its participation in the Warsaw pact.

Democracy

In May 1990, the first free elections in Hungary were held. It was a relatively smooth transition to democracy, when compared to other Eastern bloc nations. In 2004, Hungary was accepted as a member of the European Union.

History of South Africa

Early History

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The earliest people in this medical tourism hub were the Khoisan tribes, who were descended from two separate groups of pastoral and hunting Bushmen. Later, the Bantu people began their migration to southern African from the west and east coasts of the continent about 2,500 years ago. The Khoisan and Bantu civilizations lived peacefully for many hundreds of years. Over these periods of time, they began and continued a process of intermingling, and evidence of this can be seen in rock paintings from that period.

European Colonization

The first Europeans to set foot here were the Portuguese, although they were more interested in colonizing neighboring Mozambique with its gold ores than the coast of South Africa with its rocky shoreline. In the 16th century, British and Dutch trading ships began to make frequent stopovers at the coast. Soon after, the Dutch East India Company (VOA) came up with the idea of establishing a small settlement where Dutch ships could stop and replenish their supplies before heading on to the Far East. The first group of VOA ships set forth and landed here on April 06, 1652.

Initially, the settlement tried to establish trade relations with the local Khoisan people, but these attempts weren’t too successful. The Dutch then decided to look into the establishment of farming communities themselves, by releasing some of the laborers who had arrived with them from their contract and encouraging them to set up farms. Soon, the farming communities were producing enough produce and livestock to meet the needs of the new outpost.

The Dutch began to import laborers from Indonesia and Madagascar to work on the farms and began a process of occupying lands that belonged to the Khoisan people who had farmed there for centuries. The Khoisan were soon annihilated, and the few that were left were absorbed into the Dutch labor force. These indigenous Africans mingled with the European colonizers and imported laborers, creating a new race of people known today as the "Coloreds" (to be distinguished from "Blacks" which referred to those of Black African descent).

In 1816, after a couple of failed attempts, the British occupied the Cape. By this time, the power in the country was controlled by an elite group of White men, while the interior was dominated by Black Africans and Boers (White Dutch farmers). By 1885, the British had given the country full internal autonomy.

Apartheid

In 1909, the Union of South Africa was formed, and the ruling power was the South Africa National Party. Blacks were given no rights to become members of the new parliament despite constituting about 75% of the population. Worse was to come. The government passed a number of draconian laws that reserved skilled occupations for whites, limited the rights of black labor to protest, and restricted black occupancy to just 8% of the total land. Blacks began to be pushed into overpopulated ghettos.

In 1932, the African National Congress was formed. It consisted of tribal representatives who came together to promote black interests. In the following decades, South Africa would face international censure and isolation for its continuing policy of segregation of the races.

Democracy

In 1990, after decades of struggle, the South African government lifted restrictions on several opposition groups, and freed political activist and leader Nelson Mandela after a prison sentence of 27 years. Following negotiations, the country’s first democratic elections were held in April 1994, and the ANC won by a landslide.

Democratic South Africa has made what some call a “miraculous” transformation from an insolated outpost of discrimination and prejudice to a vibrant and thriving democracy. The years since the end of apartheid saw Mandela reaching out to the minority white community, overseeing the drafting of a new constitution, and making attempts to heal the wounds of the past. Today, the country is a model African power and a prominent medical tourism hub in the legion. Its world class medical facilities, combined with a gorgeous coastline, sunny weather, and an incredible variety of wildlife, have transformed this country, making it one of the premier tourism destinations in the world.

History of Thailand

The Sukhothai Age

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The origins of the Thai people can be traced back to the 6th century AD when the first Thai residents settled in the southern Yunan and Kwangste provinces of China. Migrations southward resulted in huge settlements in the Chao Phraya River basin, and these settlers soon came under the influence of the Khmer regime. In 1238, the Thais established the Buddhist kingdom of Sukhothai. By the 13th century however, the dominance of the Khmer and Mon rulers ended, and thereafter began a golden age for the Thai people marked by peace, prosperity, and the benevolence of the ruling kings, prominent among whom was Ramkamhaeng the Great.

The Ayutthaya Period

In 1350, the powerful Ayutthaya rulers conquered the Sukhothai kingdom and began to exert Khmer influences on the people. Monarchs assumed the title of “devaraja” (god kings) and began the process of extending their rule to include neighboring principalities. In 1767, the Burmese captured Ayutthaya but could not manage to retain control for long. A young general named Phya Taksin managed to escape to Chantaburi from where, seven months after the fall of Ayutthaya, he marched to the capital with his followers and overran the Burmese. In order to prevent further Burmese attacks and also to develop sea trade, General Taksin established a new capital city on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River at Thonburi. Taksin, however, did not have the most spectacular of reigns. The lack of a strong central authority after the Burmese invasion had resulted in the disintegration of the provinces, and as a result, most of his rule was spent salvaging and reuniting the scattered regions.

The Rattanakosin Period

After the death of General Taksin, General Chakri was crowned the first King of the Chakri dynasty in 1782, choosing for himself the name Rama I. Some of his many accomplishments as king were the shifting of the capital from Thonburi to Bangkok and the construction of the Grand Palace. His successors Rama II, King Nang Klao, and Rama III made great contributions to Thai society including fostering of trade with China and developingof relations with Western countries. It was Rama IV, immortalized in “The King and I” who cemented treaties with European powers, thereby avoiding the specter of colonization. In fact, Thailand has the proud distinction of being the only country in South East Asia never to have been colonized. Many social and economic reforms were initiated during the reign of Rama IV. It was during the reign of King Prajadhipok that a bloodless coup abolished absolute monarchy and established a constitutional system of monarchy. The country’s first democratic government was inaugurated in 1939, and its name was officially changed from Siam to Thailand meaning the “land of the free.”

Modern History

Since then the country has seen a range of governing styles, from military dictatorships to elected governments and has had a total of seventeen constitutions. However, all governments including the current military junta who took power in the fall of 2006, acknowledge the King as the head of the state.

History of Malaysia

Early History

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Malaysia is a thriving modern medical tourism destination with a long and rich history. There is evidence to suggest that much of peninsular Malaysia was inhabited at least 50,000 years ago. One of the earliest people here were the Senoi, who are believed to have been the descendants of the first Austronesians, the ethnic group that can be traced down to present day Malays.

In the first millennium, much of the Malay archipelago, which includes Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, East Timor, and Brunei, was ruled by the Srivijaya Empire. During the second and third centuries CE, there were invasions by Indian kings, including the Tamil Chola emperor, Rajendra Chola. Eventually, Srivijaya control of the region weakened, and soon, the Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took over control of the archipelago.

Islam arrived in the 15th century, with the advent of Sultan Iskandar Shah, ruler of the Malacca Sultanate. The Malacca kings ruled for more than a century, and their kingdom included all the areas which now come under peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and Sumatra. In 1511, Malacca fell to Portugal, and after this began a battle for control of the Malay archipelago among the Portuguese and the Sultans of Aceh and Johur. In 1641, the Dutch, who had forged an alliance with the Sultanate of Johur, gained control of the archipelago.

British Rule

The British entered the picture when Penang was leased by the Sultan of Kedah to the East India Company in 1786. Soon, they became heavily involved in administrative affairs through what was called “gunboat diplomacy” – the use of armed power to demonstrate might over a foreign people. The British moved in to settle conflicts between Chinese and Malay gangsters, and cemented their control of the region through the Pangkor Treaty of 1874.

Calls for independence from Britain soon grew and reached a peak during the Second World War when Britain announced plans to unify the administration of Malaysia under a single Malay state.

Modern History

Finally, after years of guerilla operations by anti-insurgents, British control over Malaya ended, and Malaysia was formed in 1963. The new federation included Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak. In 1965, Singapore broke away to become a separate state.

Malaysia today continues to maintain a delicate balance among the most important ethnic groups in the country. This medical tourism center benefited immensely during the Asian economic boom of the 1980s, and many of the success stories of that boom can be seen in the high-tech hospitals and health care centers for which the country is known.

History of Mexico

Early History

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Historians have found evidence of humans in the medical tourism hub of Mexico, going back more than 40,000 years. The first known society of ancient Mexico, however, was the Olmec civilization which was mainly settled in modern-day San Lorenzo and La Venta. The Mayans, considered by many to be the most accomplished of all pre-Columbine American civilizations, thrived here between 250 and 900 AD. They were responsible for the development of the calendar and a writing system. At the height of their power, the Mayans built magnificent cities surrounded by temples and palaces. Historians believe that overpopulation and ecological destruction brought about the decline of this great civilization.

Towards the last days of the Mayas, the Toltec civilization began to settle in central Mexico. They built the city of Tula, which is estimated to have been home to at least 40,000 inhabitants. The Aztecs were the last of the pre-Columbine civilizations, and they gained prominence around 1427 by forging alliances with the Toltec and the Mayans. Soon, the Aztecs were a civilization of more than 5 million people. The capital city they built, Tenochtitlan, at the time the most populated city in the world, is located underneath modern-day Mexico City.

Spanish Rule

Spain arrived in Mexico with Hernán Cortés leading the colonial charge in the 1520s. It was renamed Nuevo Espana, and the native tribes were enslaved by the Spanish. Catholicism also arrived through missionaries who went about converting the natives to Christianity.

In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Spain, and this weakened the position of the Spanish empire. Taking advantage of this, a parish priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1810, and this started the Mexican War of Independence. Although independence was declared that year, it wouldn’t really come until 1821, when the Treaty of Cordoba was signed.

Post Independence

Independent Mexico had a string of strongmen and dictators ruling at various times, which resulted in the instability that marked much of 19th century Mexican history. In 1846, border conflicts with the US brought war, which resulted in large tracts of land (including much of modern-day Arizona and New Mexico), being sold and/or given to the US.

By 1910, the Mexicans had become tired of the unequal distribution of wealth in their country, and this dissatisfaction triggered the Mexican Revolution. In 1935, President Lazaro Cardenas executed several land reforms, including a communal sharing system of the farmland. This move was of great benefit to the citizens as well as the country’s economy, and development increased at a rapid pace.

Today, Mexico is a rising economic power, and one of the most visited medical tourism destinations in this part of the Americas. Its native and alternative native healing therapies have long attracted American medical tourism patients from across the border. Mexico has also established a reputation as a major cosmetic surgery hub.

History of Singapore

Early History

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Singapore has been known by a plethora of names through out its history, which is one of the reasons why the earliest accounts of its origins are sketchy at best. Chinese historical accounts refer to a region called Pu-lou-chung, roughly translated as “the island at the tip of a peninsula.” Temasek is the earliest reference to what’s now known as Singapore. Temasek was an early settlement inhabited by people who apparently had trading relations with China. Before long, the settlement came under the control of the Sumatra based Srivijaya Empire. It was under the Srivijayas that the island was christened with its present name, albeit incorrectly. One of the Srivijaya leaders alighting at the island during a thunderstorm thought he saw a lion and proceeded to name the island “Singapura” or “the city of the lion.” Medical tourism vacationers will be tickled to know that experts have since debunked his account – it couldn’t possibly have been a lion since lions have never populated these parts. In the 16th century, Singapore passed into the hands of the Sultan of Johur, under whose control it stayed until the British came calling in 1819.

British Occupation and the Raffles Story

The British East India Company, always on the lookout for newer trading ports, entrusted one of its officers Sir Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant Governor of Bencoolen with the responsibility of finding a new port though which they could establish supremacy over the Straits of Malacca. Raffles, a veteran of the area, had his sights set on the “city of the lion” and on 29th January 1819, landed at Singapore and proceeded to sign a treaty with the Sultan to develop the island as a trading post. In 1867 Singapore officially became a part of the Royal Crown.

Raffles didn’t stick around to participate in the development of the island as a success story. He entrusted the administration to William Farquhar under whose able command the island quickly became a strategic business and commercial hub. For someone who is almost venerated in Singapore as the founding father of the island, Raffles was an absentee landlord. His last visit to Singapore came in 1822, only 3 years after his “founding,” and that too as a stopover on his way back to England, post-retirement. Raffles in fact had a pretty unspectacular career in the East India Company and died a penniless man in London, ravaged by syphilis. Singapore, however, credits him for much of its success, and you’ll find scores of statues and landmarks dedicated to him on your medical tourism vacation.

Modern History

In 1941, the Japanese, after bombing Pearl Harbor, occupied Singapore and what followed are widely considered some of the darkest days in the island’s history. When the Japanese surrendered, Singapore reverted back to its colonial status until 1959 when it was granted internal self-governance.

In 1963, Singapore joined the Malaysian federation, but was expelled two years later when then-Prime Minister Lee Yuan Kew refused to allow Malays special economic privileges that would have been detrimental to the interests of the ethnic Chinese population. On August 9, 1965 Lee, who for long held a dream of a united Malaysia and Singapore, announced the formal expulsion from the Malaysian federation and the establishment of an independent Singapore.

Today Singapore is one of the most prosperous nations in the world with a per capita income that’s on par with many Western countries. It is the world’s busiest port and remains a prominent, economic, commercial, and medical tourism center.

Taxila Museum

The foundation of Taxila Museum was laid by …………………..in ………………….. It is a site museum in so far as all the material exhibited here have been excavated in the different sites of Taxila. The museum was designed in the Greek style and galleries were set up by Sir John marshall, the diretor General of Archaeology in British India.

In the six galleries of the museum the material has been presented subject wise. Original objects have been exhibited in the wall showcases and in the middle of the halls are table showcases. The present museum building is only one-fourth of the original plan. The remaining parts are yet to be completed.

As we enter, we come to the main big hall, which shows in its middle a complete stupa from the Buddhist monastery of Mohra Moradu. To its left is an archaeological map of Taxila. On its right and left are table showcases exhibiting small finds. If we turn behind and look at the wall show cases we see schist stone sculptures on two sides. They present scenes from the life of the Buddha, other Buddhisattvas, and examples of Gandhara Art. Inone corner are red sand stone sculptures, and on the other wall are two sandstone sculptures, one of a Budhisattva and another of a Suri-god.

In the next hall to the left are stucco sculptures from Mohra Moradan in the wall showcases. To the left is Buddhist sculptures brought from Jaulian monastery. On the floor are are glazed tiles of the Kushana period.

In the third hall on this side we have stucco heads on the hall showcases. The heads show different faces and hairstyles. The big Buddha heads are typically Gandharan in style. In the middle of the hall area stupa within railing, some relic caskets, and a sleeping Buddha from Bhamala monastery.

As we trace our steps back to the main hall, we can enter a small fourth hall, which shows silver and gold jewelry and coins of the local kings. The gold jewellery presents foreign as well as local styles.

We can again retrace our steps to the main hall and proceed to the right to the fifth small hall. The first important object is an Aramaic inscription of King Piyadasi Asoka. Then we see a series of inscription written in Kharoshthi and also in Brahmi on paper. Then we see small terracotta figurines and a small terra cotta ceremonial tank model. On the opposite well we see iron objects; arrowheads, nails, horsestrips and plough.

Finally we enter the last sixth hall, where, on the wall showcases we see silver glasses of different shapes, bowls and spoons, toilet trays, small pottery pieces, bowls and plates of terracotta and pottery arranged for distillation. On the floor are big storage jars, pestle and mortar and saddle querns.

HISTORY OF MULTAN

IKHLAQ AHMED QADRI in the context of the celebrations of 5000 years of Multan, beginning from November 2000 provides interesting information about this ‘city of Saints’.

Multan as a tradition which goes back to the Bronze Age. Rich in archaeology and the history, the city has a lot to offer for those in search of culture. But, more then anything, it’s the monuments that give the region a glory of its own.

Old Multan is actually a fortified city built on a huge ancient mound and with six gates set at different places. The six entrances to the old city are; Dault Gate, Bohar Gate and Lahori Gate. Three of these (Dault, Lahori and Pak) Gates have been destroyed while the remaining three are intact, although even these are actually reconstruction, from the British period. All the existing gates are of one and the same design. A circular road, locally known as the "alang" runs right around the old city, but inside the fortification wall and not outside it as in common on other old cities. However, a modern circular road also runs on the outer side of the city. The walled city is densely populated with narrow streets, winding lanes and old style houses built quite close to each other. As Multan was once a centre for wood carving, some of its old houses have good specimens of woodwork on their windows and doors.

Being a historical city, Multan is full to tombs, mosques and other monuments of Muslim origin. Apart from historical buildings, there are two other objects in the city which have almost come to be regarded as monuments on account of their excellent workmanship. These are the two huge, carved wood "Tazzia models", which are the best specimens of craftsmanship.

Multan, it is not surprising, is also known as "Mandinatu-Aulya", the city of saints. It has tombs, mosques and "Khanqahs" (hospices) of saints. Keeping in view their historical value, priceless art work, architecture style and craftsmanship involved, all these monuments are beautifully decorated and ornamented with blue titles, fresco-paints and mosaic work, and some with the delightful and soothing Kashi and Naqashi work for which Multan is famous.

Multan was an important city even before Islam but it gained importance after the arrival of Islam. Hence most of the crafts and monuments of artistic value are clearly influenced by Islam.

1. THE HISTORICAL TOMBS

The history of Multan’s Muslim architecture begins with the Muslim conquest. Little is known about the architecture of Multan prior to the 11th century, though elsewhere in Pakistan we can trace the genesis of Muslim architecture from the 8th century A.D. During the 13th and 14th century, a new style of architecture was introduced for funerary memorials of the Muslims in and around Multan the style begin with the tomb of Baha-ud-din Zakariya and culminated in the mausoleum of Shah Rukn al-Din Rukn-I- Alam, which has been admired as "one the most splendid memorial ever erected in the honour of the dead.

These two mausoleums served as perfect models for the future architecture. The architects continued to imitate them for well over six hundred years. The popularity of the style did not lessen even when the more refined and gorgeous Mughal style of Rukn-e-Alam is the beautiful tomb of Sultan Ali Akbar at Suraji Miani near Multan, which was erected in the Mughal period (992/1585).

Some of the common features of all mausolea in Multan are their tapering walls, single dome and the glazed tile decoration on the exterior. Another widespread feature is a wooden canopy, over the main grace. Decorated with carving and grills, the ceiling of the canopy is always adorned with glazed tiles of different motifs. Occasionally the grills are made of marble, ornamented with beautiful geometric designs.

• THE TOMB OF SAINT BAHAUDDIN ZAKARYA

Standing at the northeastern side of the old fort which is situated on the high mound, is the tomb of Shikh-al-Kabir, Bahauddin Abu Mohammed Zakariya Al-Qurashi. The tomb occupies the centre of a vast oblong open area measuring 260 feet N.S by 203 feet E.W and is enclosed by a perimeters brick wall. It has two main gates one on the east and the other on the West Side. There is a vow of fourteen "Hujras" on the north for the "Zaireen".

The tomb was almost completely ruined during the siege of Multan in1848 AD by the British army but was repaired immediately by Makhdum Shah Mahmud. There is no original inscription on the body of the tomb to show the date of its construction and the subsequent repairs. However, from the fact that here lies the great Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya who had erected it himself during his prime time, it can be said that it belongs to the early decades of the 13th century. The Shaikh died on the 7th of Safar (661/21 December 1262).

• THE TOMB OF SHAH RUKN-E-ALAM

The mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam is also situated on the fort mound. The Shaikh was the son of Pir Sadar-Al-Din Arif born at Multan on the 9th of Friday Ramazan 649/26 November 1251. He was the grandson and successor of Shaikh Baha-Al-Din Zakariya.

Shaikh Rukn-i-Alam (Rukn-al-Din) died on the 7th of Friday (735/3 Jamadial-Awwal, January 1335). He was buried in the mausoleum of his grandfather, according to his own will. After sometime, however, his coffin was transferred to the present mausoleum. It was constructed, according to a popular belief, by Ghiyas-al-Din Tughluq (1340-1350) during the days of his governorship of Depalpur, but was given by Feruz Shah Tughluq to the descendents of Shah Rukn-I-Alam for the latter’s burial. The mausoleum of Rukn-I-Alam has been admired by not only the travelers and chroniclers but also by the art-historians and archaeologist who wrote the architectural history of the subcontinent.

The tomb was built on octagon plan, 90 ft in diameter with walls which are 414 ft high and 13.3 ft thick. The mausoleum was constructed with burnt bricks and supported by timber framing, and decorated with tile faced bricks and wood beams. The whole structure is divided into three stories. Over the second story is a smaller Octagon, leaving a narrow3 passage all around the place, above which stands a hemispherical dome. As the tomb is standing on a high artificial mound, it is visible from about 45 kilometers. Most of its patterns are geometric-created by arranging the glazed tiles-and a living testimony to creative genius of their designers. The building is also decorated with some floral as well as calligraphic patterns. In the 1970s the mausoleum was thoroughly repaired and renovated by the Auqaf Department of the Punjab Government. The entire glittering glazed interior is the result of new tiles and brickwork done by the Kashigars of Multan. This clearly demonstrates the talents and dexterity of the local craftsmen.

• THE TOMB OF SHAH SABZWARI

The tomb of Shah Shamas Sabzwari is situated near the Aam Khas Bagh, about a quarter of a mile on the east of the ancient port on the high bank of the old bed of the Ravi which is now filled with a multitude of modern buildings. Shah shams Sabzwari was a celebrated "Ismaili Dai". Very little is known about Shams Sabzari’s life. According to a popular legend, he arrived in Multan at the time of Shaikh Baha-al-Din Zakariya. He breathed his last at the age of 111 years in 675/1276 and was buried in Multan.

The main features of the tomb are similar to those of the city’s other major tombs. It has a square hall in an Octagon shape topped by a high dome. There is a verandah all-round the grave-chamber, with fine arches in every side and a single entrance to the hall. In the courtyard, which is at a lower level than that of the verandah, there is small mosque. Like other decorated tombs of Multan, this tomb is also ornamented with Kaashi tile work and Naqashi work. But recently a fire damaged its entrance seriously.

• THE TOMB OF SHAH YOUSUF GARDEZI

This famous tomb is situated near the Bohar Gate. Its building is quite different from the city’s other tombs, with a rectangular hall and a flat, dome-less roof. The hall, which has a small door towards the end of one of its longer sides, is constructed in a big compound. On one side of the compound stands the large hall of an imambargah. The tomb’s present building is a completely renovated one. The rectangular building is thoroughly covered with the blue Multani tiles, decorated with countless floral and geometric patterns arranged in large rectangles, square and border. The skyline is a miniature replica of a fort’s battlement and has a row of arches with borders raised in relief. Below the parapet wall runs a continuous calligraphic border on all four sides. The standard of this calligraphy, however, is not very high. Only blue and while have been used, the motifs include a rich variety of floral patterns.

• THE MAUSOLEUM OF SULTAN ALI AKBAR

This tomb is situated in Suraj Miani, a locality in the northwest of the ancient city. Sultan Ali Akbar was a saint of Islamic order, and was the great grandson of Shams-Sabzwari. This is the only epigraphical evidence available about the saint on the façade of the mausoleum, however, the tomb is a very important contribution towards the adoption assimilation and spread of Multani architecture where almost every characteristic of the Rukn-I-Alam’s tomb including the octagonal plan, tapering turrets, the three storied well balanced and harmonious elevation, embellished with colourful tiles revetment, and screened window opening, his some horizontal as well oblique so also noticeable. It is because of this that the monument has been nicknamed the "Little Rukn-i-Alam". It has glazed style design used according to the available space. The mausoleum stands on a six feet high square platform.

• Tomb of Hafiz Muhammad Jamal

This tomb is situated near Aamkhas Bagh surrounded with thick heavy wall of small bricks. The main square building includes a large hall, surrounding veranda and a Majlis Khana.

The tomb was built in 19th century during the reign of Ranjit Singh ( 1810). The land for the tomb was given by Sawanmal, the governor of Multan in those days. The main building was constructed under the supervision of Khawaja Khuda Bakhsh "Tami Waly" and Khawaja Muhammad Isa of Khanpur. With passage of time the building and its decoration were badly damaged, although necessary repair work was carried out on the original pattern in 1972-74. With the exception of the main entrance, the exterior of the tomb is very simple. However, the interior is profusely decorated with Kashi work and glass mosaics – Shisha MinaKari, While the tomb itself is exceptionally fine example of mosaic work. All the motifs and pattern are floral, with different colours.

History of Peshawar

Once standing on the top of imposing Bala-Hisar Fort in Peshawar, one could see the historic Khyber Valley- gateway that has seen traders, conquers, nomads and travellers passing through it. But today, you can only see the jungle of high concrete structures, plazas and clouds of hanging over the cityscape. So much ‘development’ has taken place in the historic city.

Zaheer-ud-Din Babur crossed the Khyber Pass in the Sixteen Century on his way from Kabul, and ordered to strengthen the Fort of Peshawar known as Bala-Hisar (the high Fort). The Fort became a symbol of his victory on this side of the Khyber Pass. Sikhs and British during their rule reinforced Bala-Hisar for different reasons through.

The history of the fort must surely to that of the city, but the early days are marked in mystery. It is tempting, however, to see this as the site of fortification protected by a moat that was visited and described by the Chinese travellers like Hsuan Tsang and later Ruder Kipling. Presently Bala-Hisar fort houses headquarters of a prestigious Frontier Corps- the defenders of the mountains. Many kings have stayed in this Fort cum Royal residence in the past, contemplating their strategic moves to consolidate their gains.

The Mosque Mahabat Khan, Peshawar’s outstanding architecture legacy, in Jeweller’s Bazar was constructed by the Governor of Peshawar Mahabat Khan Mirza Lerharsib, in 1630 during the era of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan. The Mosque was desecrated and badly damaged by the Sikhs in early nineteen century and later when the fire broke out in 1898. The British renovated it for the first time and brought back some of its grandeur.

Presently it is being looked after by the Auqaf Department and seem in an urgent need of attention. Intricate naqqashi is fading and creaks have snacked in the courtyard as well as in the walls of the grand mosque.

For-tiered Cunningham clock tower erected at the turn of the century on the eve of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee other gems in the history of Peshawar that catch the eye of any passer by.

The famous Chowk Yadgar, is located in the amidst of wide and sprawling convergence point of different major roads and bazaars of the city, have witnessed agitation stemming from religious, political and international issues in the country. Commemorative square was originally named in the memory of British Colonel Hastings. In 1969, the square was dedicated to the heroes of 1965 Indo-Pakistan war.

Edward’s Collage was established in 1901 and named in the memory of famous administrative Sir Herbert Edward as missionary boarding school. Later, Haji Sahib of Turangzai laid down the foundation of Islamia collage in 1911. The collage has magnificent frontage facing Jamrud Road with its domes, kiosks and pinnacles rising above the green trees, which contrast sharply with red brick ornate building. The architectural taste is peculiarly of Mughal with a touch of colonial style. Three domed mosque adjacent to the collage is also of the artistic pleasure.

The British made Peshawar their frontier headquarters. They also added a new part to the historic city: typical colonial garrison with Gora Bazaar, church, single men barracks, bungalows and cantonment Railway Station. The blend of colonial and Mughal architecture, shady trees, flower beds along pathways and spacious

Houses in garrison in contrast to the multi storied residences in the city still stand out boldly.

Cosmopolitan character of Qissa Khawani Bazaar-Piccadilly of Peshawar is lined with its traditional kehwa khanas, Tikka, Chapli Kabab and dry fruit shops along with modern show rooms of leather ware and bright coloured garments. The stories of the Amirs of Bokhara and the Khans of Khiva and regional love of ‘Adam and our Khani have been substituted by satellite receivers continuously breaking news and telling amazing tales of fiction from all over the world. General Evitable, the Italian mercenary who was appointed governor of Peshawar by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, built the bazaar in the present shape in the early nineteenth century. Among tourist, it is still best known Bazaar of the city. Afghan refugees who came to Peshawar as a result of Soviet occupation have added yet another dimension in the character of the city in general this bazaar in particular where they can be seen doing business from exchanging money to selling Kehwa.

In a grand Victorian hall, the Peshawar Museum houses one of the world’s best collection of Gandhara art, including stupas depicting the Buddha’s stupa collection presents a clear picture of life of Peshawar Valley during first four centuries A.D. when Peshawar was the capital of a vast empire. Handicrafts, tools and cloths of different tribes in the ethnological portion I the museum are also interesting and throw light on the cultural heritage of the region.

Life during the early days may be severed in old city. Historic houses having bay windows, jharoka and naqqashi work that may be reminiscent of Gandhara. Persian or Greek art are still servicing against all odds.

Sethi houses built during 1830-34, wood - work added in them in 1983, are good specimen of the past. Expert from International Union of Conservation have already carried out a survey for conservation of the houses and the result is still awaited . but the requirement is that Archaeology Department, city development agencies and real estate developers, all should work for preservation of legendary character of the city holding thousands of secrets.

Beyond history, heritage and culture, Peshawar faces all problems urbanization. City once famous for gardens and flowers is turning Grey. A case study of Peshawar has revelled that the city has lost 2700 acres of agriculture land during the two decades (1965-85). This in the addition to 400 of acres of vacant land that has been also eaten up by expending urban functions. In the same period, the land under parks and green space has shrunk from 163 to 75 acres.

With such thick layer of history compressed so tightly, Peshawar today is continuously growing and expanding. The need of the hour is that the concerned authorities should make plans for conserving its heritage otherwise we will lose our rich culture.

History of Chennai

Early History

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Permanent settlements in the Chennai region date back 2000 years, with scant archeological evidence suggesting that the origins might stretch back even further. Most of the dominant South Indian dynasties like the Pandyas, the Cholas, and the Vijayangar Empire ruled the region at various times in its history. In 1522, the Portuguese arrived and built a port which they named Sao Tome, after Saint Thomas who spread Christianity in the area between 52 and 70 AD. In 1639, officers of the East India Company chose a site called Madraspatnam to build the country’s first British settlement. The name Chennai comes from the most prominent local chieftain of the time, Chennappa Nayak. Chennapatnam was the name of a small hamlet south of Chennai. Over time, Chennapatnam and Madraspatnam merged to form one city. The British favored the name Madras, and the name stuck till August 1996 when the city joined a long list of rechristened (or rather, “unchristened”) Indian cities and was renamed Chennai.

British Influence

A year after the British arrived, they erected Fort George, around which the city of Madras grew. The city was briefly captured by the French in 1746 but reverted back to British control in 1749 when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed. By the end of the 18th century, the British had managed to conquer most of the outlying regions and add them to what became known as the Presidency of Madras, with Madras city as the capital. This was a period of great development for the city, and the establishment of the Indian Railways saw Madras connected to other Indian cities like Mumbai. After Indian independence in 1947, the city was crowned the capital of Madras state. In 1969, the state was renamed Tamil Nadu for the local majority Tamil speaking population, and in 1996 the capital city was officially renamed Chennai.

History of Goa

Early History

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Goa’s relative inaccessibility made her difficult to conquer, but her wealth of spices and dominance over the seas ensured that there was never a shortage of colonial trophy hunters who vied with each other to add this tiny region to their domain. Until a hundred years before the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498, Goa belonged to the Kadamba dynasty of kings and had been part of their territory for over a thousand years. The Vijaynagar kings from Karnataka, the Bahmani Moslems, and Bijapur’s Adil Shah also managed to wrest control for brief intervals of time before the Portuguese arrived.

Portuguese Colonization

In1510, the Portuguese admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque captured the port of Panaji (today known as Panjim, the capital of Goa) and heralded the beginning of 450 years of Portuguese rule. Albuquerque had briefly managed to gain control of Goa during an earlier invasion but had been thwarted by Adil Shah. The latter’s death gave the Portuguese another chance, and this time they managed to retain control.

Anger at the Moslems who had supported Adil Shah led to an inquisition and forced conversions to Catholicism became the norm. New laws banned the practice of faiths other than Catholicism, and literary works were censored. Many Hindus and Moslems left Goa for other parts of the country. This period of Portuguese occupation continued untll after Indian independence in 1947. The Goan freedom movement mounted a tough resistance to Portuguese rule and owed its success not just to the initiatives of the Indian government, but also to the untiring efforts of its freedom fighters, prominent among them Menezes, Braganza, and Dr. Cunha.

In 1961, India’s Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru sent in troops in defiance of a United Nations resolution. Codenamed “Operation Vijay” the offensive met with little resistance and lasted for exactly two days before the Portuguese were defeated. Goa thus became a Union Territory of India and stayed that way until 1987 when it was integrated into the Indian Union as a full fledged state.

History of Mumbai

An Ancient City

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India’s most populous city was earlier an archipelago of seven islands, and its name was derived from Mumba Devi, patron goddess of the city’s oldest inhabitants, the koli fisher folk. A variety of unearthed archeological implements suggests that these islands were inhabited as far back as the Stone Age. In the 3rd century B.C., this group of islands became part of the Mauryan Empire under the Emperor Ashoka, and after the decline of the Mauryans, passed into the hands of the Silhar dynasty before ending up as the territory of the Mohammedans of Gujarat in 1343. There they stayed for nearly two centuries before the Portuguese came.

For Want of a Dowry

In 1534, the Portuguese who already possessed other ports on the coast like Daman and Dieu wrested control from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat and renamed the islands Bombaia, meaning “good bay.” Several churches were built to accommodate the newly converted Koli fisher folk. In 1661, Bombaia was presented to Charles II of England as part of the dowry of his Portuguese bride, Catherine Braganza. The name “Bombaia” was anglicized to Bombay, and the new name would stick for more than three centuries. In 1668, the islands were leased to the East India Company for the princely sum of 10 pounds a year. At that point, the Company was headquartered in Surat and had been looking out for a deep sea water port. Bombay fit the bill perfectly.

In 1687, Bombay officially became the headquarters of the British East India Company. This new exalted status presented a wealth of business opportunities for immigrants from the rest of the country, and the population swelled dramatically to include Zoroastrians, Bohras Muslims, and Jews. Between 1817 and 1845, a number of reclamation and construction projects completed the consolidation of the islands into one giant teeming land mass. In 1858, after the quelling of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the East India Company was forced to hand Bombay back to the Crown.

A Call to Freedom

The latter half of the 19th century witnessed hectic construction activity, and a number of the city’s most popular monuments, like the Prince of Wales Museum and the Victoria’s Terminus, were built during this time. In 1911, King George V and Queen Mary visited India for the Durbar of Delhi, and the Gateway of India, Bombay’s most famous landmark, was built to commemorate their visit.

Bombay was the backdrop for many significant events in the Indian history struggle. This was where the Indian National Congress had been formed in 1885 at the Gowali Tank Maidan, and this very same spot was where Mahatma Gandhi gave the historic “Quit India” call to the British in 1942. This watershed event was the culmination in a series of struggles, and the British were forced to leave the country in 1947. Symbolically enough, the last troops left through the Gateway of India, sailing through the same harbor they had entered through 282 years ago.

Post Independence History

Bombay continued to be the capital of state until 1960 when the state was splintered into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The city was instated as the new capital of Maharashtra and was ruled by the Congress Party which had swept power through most parts of the country, post independence. In 1994, the Congress stronghold was ended by the Shiv Sena-BJP coalition, and in 1995 the city was rechristened Mumbai. Today, the city is India’s commercial and financial capital, and it houses the country’s premier stock exchange (the oldest in Asia), and is the most common point of entry for foreigners. It has the largest concentration of millionaires in India and is home to Dharavi, Asia’s largest slum. A city of gang lords and Bollywood, Mumbai epitomizes the Indian paradox like no other city can.

History of New Delhi

Lal Kot, founded by the Tomara Rajputs in 736 AD, is generally considered the first of the seven cities built within the Delhi area. After many battles for control over the years, a second city, Siri, was created by Ala-ud-din Khalji in 1303. A fortress city was built in 1321 by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, but was abandoned after five years of residence. In 1327, he built the fourth city of Jahanpanah. By 1354, his successor, Firoz Shah, had created a new capital, Firozabad, by the river. After a series of invasions by various rulers, Babur, a descendant of Gengis managed to wrest control of the city. His successor, Humayun, was temporarily exiled by the invading Afghan king Sher Shah, who built the sixth capital city, presently called Purana Qila. The seventh city of Shahjahanabad was created by the 17th century Mogul emperor, Shah Jahan, to become one of the most majestic cities in the country, today known as Old Delhi.

The Birth of New Delhi

New Delhi was inaugurated by the British in 1931. It is the most recent of the eight cities within Delhi. The ruins of six of these can still be seen in South Delhi. New Delhi blends the ancient grandeur of the Old Town with contemporary styles. It’s not uncommon here to find modern buildings and highways built among the ruins of ancient cities, tombs, and temples. For those seeking an even closer brush with history, a trip through Old Delhi is highly recommended. The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid, two of the most popular must-see icons of Islamic Delhi’s history are located here.

New Delhi also displays a more modern form of architectural splendor, seen in the India Gate and the Presidential Palace. There are a multitude of museums that showcase the city’s rich past. The population here has been mostly Hindu since India’s independence from the British. Many of the residents are descendants of those who were displaced from the East Bengal and Pakistan-controlled Punjab regions after the Partition of India and Pakistan in 1947.