History of Germany during World War II

This article is about the combat history of Nazi Germany. For other national history through the period (domestic activity, war production, etc.), see Germany in World War II.

The history of Germany during World War II closely parallels that of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. He came to power in Germany in 1933. From that point onward, Germany followed a policy of rearmament and confrontation with other countries. During the war German armies occupied most of Europe; Nazi forces defeated France, took Norway, invaded Yugoslavia and Greece and occupied much of the European portion of the Soviet Union. Germany also forged alliances with Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and later Finland and collaborated with individuals in several other nations. The German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942 was considered the decisive victory that turned the tide of the war against Germany and her Anti-Comintern allies.[1] The Second World War culminated in Germany's unconditional surrender to the Allies, the fall of Nazi Germany, and the death of Adolf Hitler.

War Ends with German Defeat

Faced with an effective British blockade, fierce resistance from the British and French armies, the entrance of the United States Army, political unrest and starvation at home, an economy in ruins, mutiny in the navy, and mounting defeats on the battlefield, German generals requested armistice negotiations with the Allies in November 1918.

Under the terms of the Armistice, the German Army was allowed to remain intact and was not forced to admit defeat by surrendering. U.S. General John J. Pershing had misgivings about this, saying it would be better to have the German generals admit defeat so there could be no doubt. The French and British were convinced however that Germany would not be a threat again.

The failure to force the German General Staff to admit defeat would have a huge impact on the future of Germany. Although the Army was later reduced in size, its impact would be felt after the war as a political force dedicated to German nationalism, not democracy.

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The German General Staff also would support the false idea that their Army had not been defeated on the battlefield, but could have fought on to victory, except for being betrayed at home, the infamous 'Stab in the Back' theory.

This 'Stab in the Back' theory would become hugely popular among many Germans who found it impossible to swallow defeat. During the war, Adolf Hitler became obsessed with this idea, especially laying blame on Jews and Marxists in Germany for undermining the war effort. To Hitler, and so many others, the German politicians who signed the Armistice on November 11th, 1918, would become known as the "November Criminals."

After the Armistice, the remnants of the German Army straggled home from the Front to face tremendous uncertainty.

Germany was now a republic, a form of government (democracy) the Germans historically had little experience or interest in. With the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm and the collapse of the Hohenzollern Monarchy, the German Empire founded by Bismarck in 1871 (the Second Reich) had come to an end.

The new German Republic would eventually have a constitution that made it, on paper, one of the most liberal democracies in history. Its ideals included: equality for all; that political power would be only in the hands of the people; political minority representation in the new Reichstag; a cabinet and chancellor elected by majority vote in the Reichstag; and a president elected by the people.

But Germany was also a nation in political and social chaos. In Berlin and Munich, left-wing Marxist groups proclaimed Russian-like revolutions, only to meet violent opposition from right-wing nationalist Freikorps (small armies of ex-soldiers for hire) along with regular Army troops.

Communists, Socialists and even innocent bystanders were rounded up and murdered in January 1919, in Berlin, and in May in Munich.

The leaders of the new German democracy had made a deal with the German General Staff which allowed the generals to maintain rank and privilege in return for the Army's support of the young republic and a pledge to put down Marxism and help restore order.

Socialists stage a propaganda ride through the streets of Berlin in 1919. Below: Counter-revolutionary troops under the command of Army Colonel Wilhelm Reinhard march in formation along the Unter den Linden Avenue in Berlin.

Amid this political turmoil, on June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed by the victorious Allies and was then dutifully ratified by the German democratic government. Under the terms of the treaty, Germany alone was forced to accept responsibility for causing the war and had to pay huge war reparations for all the damage. Germany also had to give up land to France and Poland. The German Army was limited to 100,000 men and was forbidden to have submarines or military aircraft.

The treaty had the effect of humiliating the German nation before the world. This would lead to a passionate desire in many Germans, including Adolf Hitler, to see their nation throw off the "shackles" of the treaty and once again take its place in the world – the "rebirth" of Germany through a strong nationalist government. In years to come, Hitler would speak out endlessly against the treaty and gain much support. In addition, he would rail against the 'November Criminals' and 'Jewish Marxists.'

In the summer of 1919, Adolf Hitler was still in the Army and was stationed in Munich where he had become an informer. Corporal Hitler had named soldiers in his barracks that supported the Marxist uprisings in Munich, resulting in their arrest and executions.

Hitler then became one of many undercover agents in the German Army weeding out Marxist influence within the ranks and investigating subversive political organizations.

The Army sent him to a political indoctrination course held at the University of Munich where he quickly came to the attention of his superiors. He describes it in Mein Kampf:

"One day I asked for the floor. One of the participants felt obliged to break a lance for the Jews and began to defend them in lengthy arguments. This aroused me to an answer. The overwhelming majority of the students present took my standpoint. The result was that a few days later I was sent into a Munich regiment as a so-called educational officer."

Hitler's anti-Semitic outbursts impressed his superiors including his mentor, Captain Karl Mayr (who later died in Buchenwald). In August 1919, Hitler was given the job of lecturing returning German prisoners of war on the dangers of Communism and pacifism, as well as democracy and disobedience. He also delivered tirades against the Jews that were well received by the weary soldiers who were looking for someone to blame for all their misfortunes.

An Army report on Hitler referred to him as "a born orator."

Hitler had discovered much to his delight that he could speak well in front of a strange audience, hold their attention, and sway them to his point of view.

For his next assignment, he was ordered in September of 1919 to investigate a small group in Munich known as the German Workers' Party.

Hitler in World War I

In the muddy, lice infested, smelly trenches of World War I, Adolf Hitler found a new home fighting for the German Fatherland. After years of poverty, alone and uncertain, he now had a sense of belonging and purpose.

The "war to end all wars" began after the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was gunned down by a young Serbian terrorist on June 28, 1914. Events quickly escalated as Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany urged Austria to declare war on Serbia. Russia then mobilized against Austria. Germany mobilized against Russia. France and Britain then mobilized against Germany.

All over Europe and England, young men, including Adolf Hitler, eagerly volunteered. Like most young soldiers before them, they thought it would be a short war, but hopefully long enough for them to see some action and participate in the great adventure.

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It would turn out to be a long war in which soldiers died by the millions. An entire generation of young men would be wiped out. The war would also bring the downfall of the old European culture of kings and noblemen and their codes of honor.

New technologies such as planes, tanks, machine-guns, long-range artillery, and deadly gas were used by the armies against each other. But a stalemate developed along a line of entrenched fortifications stretching from the North Sea, all the way through France to the Saar River in Germany. In these miserable trenches, Adolf Hitler became acquainted with war.

Hitler had volunteered at age 25 by enlisting in a Bavarian Regiment. After its first engagement against the British and Belgians near Ypres, 2,500 of the 3,000 men in the Hitler's regiment were killed, wounded or missing. Hitler escaped without a scratch. Throughout most of the war, Hitler had great luck avoiding life-threatening injury. More than once he moved away from a spot where moments later a shell exploded killing or wounding everyone.

Hitler, by all accounts, was an unusual soldier with a sloppy manner and unmilitary bearing. But he was also eager for action and always ready to volunteer for dangerous assignments even after many narrow escapes from death.

Corporal Hitler was a dispatch runner, taking messages back and forth from the command staff in the rear to the fighting units near the battlefield. During lulls in the fighting he would take out his watercolors and paint the landscapes of war.

Hitler, unlike his fellow soldiers, never complained about bad food and the horrible conditions or talked about women, preferring to discuss art or history. He received a few letters but no packages from home and never asked for leave. His fellow soldiers regarded Hitler as too eager to please his superiors, but generally a likable loner notable for his luck in avoiding injury as well as his bravery.

On October 7, 1916, Hitler's luck ran out when he was wounded in the leg by a shell fragment during the Battle of the Somme. He was hospitalized in Germany. It was his first time away from the Front after two years of war. Following his recovery, he went sightseeing in Berlin, then was assigned to light duty in Munich. He was appalled at the apathy and anti-war sentiment among German civilians. He blamed the Jews for much of this and saw them as conspiring to spread unrest and undermine the German war effort.

Hitler (seated on right) and fellow soldiers during World War I. The dog had the name Fuchsl and was actually Hitler's pet during the war until it was stolen from him.

This idea of an anti-war conspiracy involving Jews would become an obsession to add to other anti-Semitic notions he acquired in Vienna, leading to an ever-growing hatred of Jews.

To get away from the apathetic civilians, Hitler asked to go back to the Front and was sent back in March of 1917.

In August 1918, he received the Iron Cross 1st Class, a rarity for foot soldiers. Interestingly, the lieutenant who recommended him for the medal was a Jew, a fact Hitler would later obscure. Despite his good record and a total of five medals, he remained a corporal. Due to his unmilitary appearance and odd personality, his superiors felt he lacked leadership qualities and thought he would not command enough respect as a sergeant.

As the tide of war turned against the Germans and morale collapsed along the Front, Hitler became depressed. He would sometimes spend hours sitting in the corner of the tent in deep contemplation then would suddenly burst onto his feet shouting about the "invisible foes of the German people," namely Jews and Marxists.

In October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a British chlorine gas attack near Ypres. He was sent home to a starving, war weary country full of unrest. He laid in a hospital bed consumed with dread amid a swirl of rumors of impending disaster.

On November 10, 1918, an elderly pastor came into the hospital and announced the news. The Kaiser and the House of Hollenzollern had fallen. Their beloved Fatherland was now a republic. The war was over.

Hitler described his reaction in Mein Kampf: "There followed terrible days and even worse nights – I knew that all was lost...in these nights hatred grew in me, hatred for those responsible for this deed."

Not the military, in his mind, but the politicians back at home in Germany and primarily the Jews.

Sino-Indian War 1962-1963

Unable to reach political accommodation on disputed territory along the 3,225-kilometer-long Himalayan border, the Chinese attacked India on October 20, 1962. At the time, nine divisions from the eastern and western commands were deployed along the Himalayan border with China. None of these divisions was up to its full troop strength, and all were short of artillery, tanks, equipment, and even adequate articles of clothing.

In Ladakh the Chinese attacked south of the Karakoram Pass at the northwest end of the Aksai Chin Plateau and in the Pangong Lake area about 160 kilometers to the southeast. The defending Indian forces were easily ejected from their posts in the area of the Karakoram Pass and from most posts near Pangong Lake. However, they put up spirited resistance at the key posts of Daulat Beg Oldi (near the entrance to the pass) and Chushul (located immediately south of Pangong Lake and at the head of the vital supply road to Leh, a major town and location of an air force base in Ladakh). Other Chinese forces attacked near Demchok (about 160 kilometers southeast of Chusul) and rapidly overran the Demchok and the Jara La posts.

In the eastern sector, in Assam, the Chinese forces advanced easily despite Indian efforts at resistance. On the first day of the fighting, Indian forces stationed at the Tsang Le post on the northern side of the Namka Chu, the Khinzemane post, and near Dhola were overrun. On the western side of the North-East Frontier Agency, Tsang Dar fell on October 22, Bum La on October 23, and Tawang, the headquarters of the Seventh Infantry Brigade, on October 24. The Chinese made an offer to negotiate on October 24. The Indian government promptly rejected this offer.

With a lull in the fighting, the Indian military desperately sought to regroup its forces. Specifically, the army attempted to strengthen its defensive positions in the North-East Frontier Agency and Ladakh and to prepare against possible Chinese attacks through Sikkim and Bhutan. Army units were moved from Calcutta, Bihar, Nagaland, and Punjab to guard the northern frontiers of West Bengal and Assam. Three brigades were hastily positioned in the western part of the North-East Frontier Agency, and two other brigades were moved into Sikkim and near the West Bengal border with Bhutan to face the Chinese. Light Stuart tanks were drawn from the Eastern Command headquarters at Calcutta to bolster these deployments.

In the western sector, a divisional organization was established in Leh; several battalions of infantry, a battery of twenty-five-pounder guns, and two troops of AMX light tanks were airlifted into the Chushul area from Punjab. On November 4, the Indian military decided that the post at Daulat Beg Oldi was untenable, and its defenders were withdrawn over the 5,300-meter-high Sasar Brangsa Pass to a more defensible position.

The reinforcements and redeployments in Ladakh proved sufficient to defend the Chushul perimeter despite repeated Chinese attacks. However, the more remote posts at Rezang La and Gurung Hill and the four posts at Spanggur Lake area fell to the Chinese.

In the North-East Frontier Agency, the situation proved to be quite different. Indian forces counterattacked on November 13 and captured a hill northwest of the town of Walong. Concerted Chinese attacks dislodged them from this hard-won position, and the nearby garrison had to retreat down the Lohit Valley.

In another important section of the eastern sector, the Kameng Frontier Division, six Chinese brigades attacked across the Tawang Chu near Jang and advanced some sixteen kilometers to the southeast to attack Indian positions at Nurang, near Se La, on November 17. Despite the Indian attempt to regroup their forces at Se La, the Chinese continued their onslaught, wiping out virtually all Indian resistance in Kameng. By November 18, the Chinese had penetrated close to the outskirts of Tezpur, Assam, a major frontier town nearly fifty kilometers from the Assam-North-East Frontier Agency border.

The Chinese did not advance farther and on November 21 declared a unilateral cease-fire. They had accomplished all of their territorial objectives, and any attempt to press farther into the plains of Assam would have stretched their logistical capabilities and their lines of communication to a breaking point. By the time the fighting stopped, each side had lost 500 troops.

The fighting war was over, but a new diplomatic war had begun. After more than thirty years of border tension and stalemate, high-level bilateral talks were held in New Delhi starting in February 1994 to foster "confidence-building measures" between the defense forces of India and China, and a new period of better relations began.

Nuclear War 1962 (Alternate History)

Glimpse what a nuclear war in 1962 and its aftermath would have looked like without radically departing from known historical facts.

This short history of the American-Soviet nuclear war of 1962 is based on authoritative sources (footnoted), many of which have only recently been de-classified. The book frighteningly demonstrates that it would have required only minor variations in events or the temperaments of the key players to have set the history of the entire world on a radically different trajectory.

Sino-Indian War

Sino-Indian War

The Sino-Indian War (Hindi: भारत-चीन युद्ध Bhārat-Chīn Yuddh), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (simplified Chinese: 中印边境战争; traditional Chinese: 中印邊境戰爭; pinyin: Zhōng-Yìn Biānjìng Zhànzhēng), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.

The Chinese launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962, coinciding with the Cuban Missile Crisis. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres, capturing Rezang la in Chushul in the western theatre, as well as Tawang in the eastern theatre. The war ended when the Chinese declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962, and simultaneously announced its withdrawal from the disputed area.

The Sino-Indian War is notable for the harsh conditions under which much of the fighting took place, entailling large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,250 metres (14,000 feet).[7] This presented enormous logistics problems for both sides. The Sino-Indian War was also noted for the non-deployment of the navy or air force by either the Chinese and Indian sides.

Location

  China and India share a long border, sectioned into three stretches by Nepal and Bhutan, which follows the Himalayan mountains between Burma and what was then West Pakistan. A number of disputed regions lie along this border. At its western end is the Aksai Chin region, an area the size of Switzerland, that sits between the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang and Tibet (which China declared as an autonomous region in 1965). The eastern border, between Burma and Bhutan, comprises the present Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh (formerly the North East Frontier Agency). Both of these regions were overrun by China in the 1962 conflict.

Most combat took place at high altitudes. The Aksai Chin region is a vast desert of salt flats around 5,000 metres above sea level, and Arunachal Pradesh is extremely mountainous with a number of peaks exceeding 7000 metres. According to military doctrine, to be successful an attacker generally requires a 3:1 ratio of numerical superiority over the defender for foot soldiers; in mountain warfare this ratio should be considerably higher as the terrain favours defence.[citation needed] Despite the disadvantage of this, China was able to take advantage of the terrain: the Chinese Army had possession of the highest ridges in the regions. The high altitude and freezing conditions also cause logistical and welfare difficulties; in past similar conflicts (such as the Italian Campaign of World War I) more casualties have been caused by the harsh conditions than enemy action. The Sino-Indian War was no different, with many troops on both sides dying in the freezing cold.[8]

Background

Main articles: Sino-Indian relations and Origins of the Sino-Indian border dispute

The cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely-separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. China's construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict. Arunachal Pradesh (called South Tibet by China) is also claimed by both nations — although it is roughly the size of Austria, it was sparsely inhabited in the days of the war (by numerous local tribes) due to its mountainous terrain.[citation needed] However, it has a population of over one million today.

The Johnson Line

The western portion of the Sino-Indian boundary originated in 1834, with the Sikh Confederation's conquest of Ladakh. In 1842, the Sikh Confederacy, which at the time ruled over much of Northern India (including the frontier regions of Jammu and Kashmir), signed a treaty which guaranteed the integrity of its existing borders with its neighbours.[9] The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in transfer of sovereignty over Ladakh, part of the Jammu and Kashmir region, to the British, and British commissioners contacted Chinese officials to negotiate the border. The boundaries at its two extremities, Pangong Lake and Karakoram Pass, were well defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay undefined.[10]

In 1865, British surveyor W H Johnson came to an agreement with the Maharaja of Kashmir, in whose service he was employed,[11] on a proposed "Johnson Line" which placed Aksai Chin in Kashmir.[12] China rejected the arrangement, and the British government also harboured doubts, so it decided to take up the issue in an attempt to reach a settlement. However in 1892, before the issue had been resolved, China erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass on the ancient caravan route between Xinjiang and Ladakh (which were disputed by the British Indian government).[7][12]

Throughout most of the 19th century Great Britain and the expanding Russian Empire were jockeying for influence in Central Asia, and Britain decided to hand over Aksai Chin to Chinese administration as a buffer against Russian invasion. The newly-created border was known as the MacCartney-MacDonald Line, and both British-controlled India and China now began to show Aksai Chin as Chinese.[12] In 1911 the Xinhai Revolution resulted in power shifts in China, and by 1918 (in the wake of the Russian Bolshevik Revolution) the British no longer saw merit in China's continuing possession of the region. On British maps, the border was redrawn as the original Johnson Line,[7] but despite this reversion, the new border was left unmanned and undemarcated.[7][12] According to Neville Maxwell, the British had used as many as 11 different boundary lines in the region, as their claims shifted with the political situation.[13] By the time of Indian independence in 1947, the Johnson Line had become India's official western boundary.[7] On 1 July 1954, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru definitively stated the Indian position.[14] He claimed that Aksai Chin had been part of the Indian Ladakh region for centuries, and that the border (as defined by the Johnson Line) was non-negotiable.[15] According to George N. Patterson, when the Indian government finally produced a report detailing the alleged proof of India's claims to the disputed area, "the quality of the Indian evidence was very poor, including some very dubious sources indeed".[16][17]

In 1956-57,[18] China constructed a road through Aksai Chin, connecting Xinjiang and Tibet, which ran south of the Johnson Line in many places.[7][12][15] Aksai Chin was easily accessible to the Chinese, but access from India, which meant negotiating the Karakoram mountains, was more problematic.[15] Consequently India did not even learn of the existence of the road until 1957 — finally confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published the following year.[2]

The McMahon Line

Main articles: McMahon Line and Simla Accord (1913)

In 1826, British India and China gained a common border after the British wrested control of Manipur and Assam from the Burmese, following the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824-1826. In 1847, Major J. Jenkins, agent for the North East Frontier, reported that the Tawang was part of Tibet. In 1872, four monastic officials from Tibet arrived in Tawang and supervised a boundary settlement with Major R. Graham, NEFA official, which included the Tawang Tract as part of Tibet. Thus, in the last half of the 19th century, it was clear that the British treated the Tawang Tract as part of Tibet. This boundary was confirmed in a 1 June 1912 note from the British General Staff in India, stating that the "present boundary (demarcated) is south of Tawang, running westwards along the foothills from near Ugalguri to the southern Bhutanese border."[7] A 1908 map of The Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam prepared for the Foreign Department of the Government of India, showed the international boundary from Bhutan continuing to the Baroi River, following the Himalayas foothill alignment.[7] In 1913, representatives of Great Britain, China and Tibet attended a conference in Simla regarding the borders between Tibet, China and British India. Whilst all three representatives initialed the agreement, Beijing later objected to the proposed boundary between the regions of Outer Tibet and Inner Tibet, and did not ratify it. The details of the Indo-Tibetan boundary was not revealed to China at the time.[7] The foreign secretary of the British Indian government, Henry McMahon, who had drawn up the proposal, decided to bypass the Chinese (although instructed not to by his superiors) and settle the border bilaterally by negotiating directly with Tibet.[15] According to later Indian claims, this border was intended to run through the highest ridges of the Himalayas, as the areas south of the Himalayas were traditionally Indian.[19] However, the McMahon Line lay south of the boundary India claims.[15] India's government held the view that the Himalayas were the ancient boundaries of the Indian subcontinent, and thus should be the modern boundaries of India,[19] while it is the position of the Chinese government that the disputed area in the Himalayas have been geographically and culturally part of Tibet since ancient times.[20]

Months after the Simla agreement, China set up boundary markers south of the McMahon Line. T. O'Callaghan, an official in the Eastern Sector of the North East Frontier, relocated all these markers to a location slightly south of the McMahon Line, and then visited Rima to confirm with Tibetan officials that there was no Chinese influence in the area.[7] The British-run Government of India initially rejected the Simla Agreement as incompatible with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, which stipulated that neither party was to negotiate with Tibet "except through the intermediary of the Chinese government".[21] The British and Russians cancelled the 1907 agreement by joint consent in 1921.[22] It was not until the late 1930s that the British started to use the McMahon Line on official maps of the region.

China took the position that the Tibetan government should not have been allowed to make a such a treaty, rejecting Tibet's claims of independent rule.[15] For its part, Tibet did not object to any section of the McMahon Line excepting the demarcation of the trading town of Tawang, which the Line placed under British-Indian jurisdiction.[15] However, up until World War II, Tibetan officials were allowed to administer Tawang with complete authority. Due to the increased threat of Japanese and Chinese expansion during this period, British Indian troops secured the town as part of the defence of India's eastern border.[7]

In the 1950s, India began actively patrolling the region. It found that, at multiple locations, the highest ridges actually fell north of the McMahon Line.[15] Given India's historic position that the original intent of the line was to separate the two nations by the highest mountains in the world, in these locations India extended its forward posts northward to the ridges, regarding this move as compliant with the original border proposal, although the Simla Convention did not explicitly state this intention.[15]

History of the United Arab Emirates

Early History

medical tourism dubai uae-12.jpg

Even before Britain first offered its protection to a group of several, loosely aligned sheikhdoms, the rulers of region were already autonomous monarchs who ruled over their own individual territories. At that time, the United Arab Emirates was known as Trucial Oman, and it consisted of seven emirates - Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al Quwain, Fujairah, and Ras al Khaimah. In 1882, when the British arrived, the kingdoms signed a treaty that allowed England to represent them in international matters and to provide defense.

Things continued along this vein until 1952 when the rulers of the seven sheikhdoms decided to establish the Trucial Council to formulate common policies that could be adopted by all rulers. The purpose was to bond the seven territories as a more cohesive unit, and this was the first step toward the establishment of a federation.

Discovery of Oil

It was Abu Dhabi, the largest of the sheikhdoms, that first struck gold when oil was discovered off its waters in 1958. A couple of years later, onshore drilling resulted uncovered large reserves of oil on land. In 1962, the emirate began the commercial exploitation of these reserves.

Independence

In January 1968, the British government announced its intention to withdraw military protection from the region, and in March of that year, the Trucial states formed a federation that included neighboring Bahrain and Qatar. The newly formed coalition didn't last long, however. Originally intended as an independent federation, it failed to hold strong against the interests of the seven sheikhs on the one hand and the kingdom of Bahrain and Qatar on the other. In 1971, both the latter kingdoms broke off to form separate independent states.

After the departures of Bahrain and Qatar, six of the remaining members of the federation proceeded with plans to establish an independent state, with a separate well-defined constitution. In December of that year, the United Arab Emirates declared itself a sovereign entity, consisting of six emirates - Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al Quwain, and Fujairah. The seventh emirate, Ras-al-Khaimah joined the newly formed country in 1972.

Sheikh Zayed, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, assumed position as the first President of the country. The ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Said al-Maktoum, took office as the vice president.

Today, the United Arab Emirates is one of the richest countries in the Persian Gulf region, with interests not just in oil, but also in finance, banking, and of course, medical tourism. The country has managed to forge a balance between Western-style capitalism and Islamic culture, and it has positioned itself as a regional medical tourism and healthcare hub. It attracts visitors who are impressed with the quality of its medical facilities, the wealth of amusement and tourism opportunities here, and the comforting presence of a sizable Western expatriate population.

History of the Philippines

Ancient History of the Philippines

philippines manila medical tourism health travel-5.jpg

A large percentage of Filipinos are descended from the Austronesians, a group from modern-day Taiwan that settled in northern Luzon around 2500 BC and spread to the rest of the Philippine Islands. Despite its isolation from mainland Asia, trade flourished with Arab, Chinese, and Indian merchants over the next thousand years until the arrival of the Europeans.

European Control of the Philippines

The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the Philippians, with Ferdinand Magellan and his crew arriving in the archipelago in 1521. Political conflicts with Lapu-Lapu resulted in Magellan’s death at the hands of indigenous warriors. Migel Lopez de Legazpi, a conquistador, made his way to Cebu from Mexico in 1565 to establish the first Spanish settlement. In 1571, Manila was proclaimed the capital of the new Spanish Colony. The arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries, who worked diligently to convert most of the inhabitants, made the Spanish occupation more secure. Challenges erupted in the form of indigenous revolts, as local people tried to overthrow the Spanish invasion. Additionally, other nations, such as Britain, China, France, Japan, and Portugal, challenged Spain’s right to rule. The biggest setback for the Spanish was the temporary occupation of Manila by the British forces during the Seven Year’s War. In spite of all the attacks, the Philippines was ruled as a territory of New Spain from 1565 to 1821, when it began to be administered directly by Spain. On September 6, 1834, the Philippines officially opened up for world trade.

Unrest over Government Injustices in the Philippians

The Spanish-American war, which began in Cuba in 1898, spilled into the Philippines when Commodore George Dewey overpowered the Spanish at Manila Bay. During this time of unease, Emilio Aguinaldo declared Filipino independence on June 12, 1898, and was instated as head of state. Aguinaldo’s position was jeopardized when Spain ceded the Philippines to America upon their defeat. The Philippine-American war ensued, continuing the violence of earlier years, until the Americans captured Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901. In 1935, the Philippines became the Commonwealth of the Philippines, with plans to increase their independence over time. Those plans were rudely interrupted by World War II, when Japan invaded and occupied the islands. The Philippines finally achieved total Independence on July 4, 1946.

Modern Philippine History

Although newly independent, things did not settle down, as the government faced political instability from several rebel groups. The country did experience economic growth under the leadership of President Ferdinand Marcos in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. Unable to seek a third term however, he declared martial law and ruled by force, which led to further revolt. A prominent opposition leader, Benigno Aquino Jr., was assassinated on August 21, 1983. An election soon followed, deemed fraudulent by many, and resulted in Aquino’s wife, Corazon Aquino, being declared the winner after a military standoff. Marcos and his family fled the country, while Aquino called for a constitutional convention.

History of Hungary

Overview

budapest hungary medical tourism dental tourism-5.jpg

Once one of the largest medieval kingdoms in the continent, Hungary has emerged from communism to become a full-fledged democracy, a member of the European Union, and a thriving medical tourism center. Its expertise in science and technology has helped Hungary develop into a powerhouse in the dental and cosmetic tourism industries.

Prehistoric Period

Early settlers came from the Ugrian branch of the Finno-Ugrian group of people, who were believed to have settled along the River Volga. In the first millennium, these people moved south where they exchanged their nomadic ways of life for herding. As time passed, these herdsmen were joined by other tribes, and before long, they took on the name of the strongest tribe among them – the Megyars - as a collective name to identify themselves. This is the origin of the word “Magyar” that Hungarians currently use to identify their country.

In the medieval ages, Magyar had one of the largest populations in Europe, and was unified by the Magyar tribe leader Arpad, who forged these tribes into a single Hungarian nation. In 1000 AD Stephen I, a descendant of Arpad, established Hungary as a Christian kingdom and was crowned king. Under him, reforms were initiated to form Hungary into a feudal Christian state. The first great challenge this new Christian state faced was the Mongol invasion in 1241. When the Mongols retreated, large fortified castles were built as a protection against any further attacks. Through this period, descendants of Arpad continued to rule.

Modern History

In 1526, at the Battle of Mohacs, the Ottoman Empire tasted their first victory over the Hungarians. After this battle, Hungary was divided into three partitions. The Hapsburg Emperors controlled the western partition, the Turks controlled Budapest, and the southern and eastern regions (modern-day Romania) remained the "citadel" of Hungarian culture. The Kingdom would not be fully reunited again until 1718.

By the eighteenth century, winds of revolution were sweeping across Europe, and the Hungarians were not left untouched. A national revival movement for reforms emerged (like making Hungarian the official language). The years following this were marked by turmoil as the various ethnic groups began to voice their demands.

In 1918, after the end of the First World War, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed, and thereafter followed more turmoil as the Transylvanians declared themselves to be part of Romania. In the midst of this chaos, the Communists came to power with the promise of restoring the glory of Hungary with help from the Soviet empire. Under this new regime, housing, transportation, and agricultural and commercial land were nationalized. Russian interference in Hungary sparked resentment. In 1956, the Hungarian revolution marked by a blood bath in Parliament Square, led to revolutionaries taking over the pro-Soviet Hungarian Worker’s Party. The Party declared it would work towards a slow democratization of Hungary, and made many notable changes, including severing its participation in the Warsaw pact.

Democracy

In May 1990, the first free elections in Hungary were held. It was a relatively smooth transition to democracy, when compared to other Eastern bloc nations. In 2004, Hungary was accepted as a member of the European Union.

History of South Africa

Early History

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The earliest people in this medical tourism hub were the Khoisan tribes, who were descended from two separate groups of pastoral and hunting Bushmen. Later, the Bantu people began their migration to southern African from the west and east coasts of the continent about 2,500 years ago. The Khoisan and Bantu civilizations lived peacefully for many hundreds of years. Over these periods of time, they began and continued a process of intermingling, and evidence of this can be seen in rock paintings from that period.

European Colonization

The first Europeans to set foot here were the Portuguese, although they were more interested in colonizing neighboring Mozambique with its gold ores than the coast of South Africa with its rocky shoreline. In the 16th century, British and Dutch trading ships began to make frequent stopovers at the coast. Soon after, the Dutch East India Company (VOA) came up with the idea of establishing a small settlement where Dutch ships could stop and replenish their supplies before heading on to the Far East. The first group of VOA ships set forth and landed here on April 06, 1652.

Initially, the settlement tried to establish trade relations with the local Khoisan people, but these attempts weren’t too successful. The Dutch then decided to look into the establishment of farming communities themselves, by releasing some of the laborers who had arrived with them from their contract and encouraging them to set up farms. Soon, the farming communities were producing enough produce and livestock to meet the needs of the new outpost.

The Dutch began to import laborers from Indonesia and Madagascar to work on the farms and began a process of occupying lands that belonged to the Khoisan people who had farmed there for centuries. The Khoisan were soon annihilated, and the few that were left were absorbed into the Dutch labor force. These indigenous Africans mingled with the European colonizers and imported laborers, creating a new race of people known today as the "Coloreds" (to be distinguished from "Blacks" which referred to those of Black African descent).

In 1816, after a couple of failed attempts, the British occupied the Cape. By this time, the power in the country was controlled by an elite group of White men, while the interior was dominated by Black Africans and Boers (White Dutch farmers). By 1885, the British had given the country full internal autonomy.

Apartheid

In 1909, the Union of South Africa was formed, and the ruling power was the South Africa National Party. Blacks were given no rights to become members of the new parliament despite constituting about 75% of the population. Worse was to come. The government passed a number of draconian laws that reserved skilled occupations for whites, limited the rights of black labor to protest, and restricted black occupancy to just 8% of the total land. Blacks began to be pushed into overpopulated ghettos.

In 1932, the African National Congress was formed. It consisted of tribal representatives who came together to promote black interests. In the following decades, South Africa would face international censure and isolation for its continuing policy of segregation of the races.

Democracy

In 1990, after decades of struggle, the South African government lifted restrictions on several opposition groups, and freed political activist and leader Nelson Mandela after a prison sentence of 27 years. Following negotiations, the country’s first democratic elections were held in April 1994, and the ANC won by a landslide.

Democratic South Africa has made what some call a “miraculous” transformation from an insolated outpost of discrimination and prejudice to a vibrant and thriving democracy. The years since the end of apartheid saw Mandela reaching out to the minority white community, overseeing the drafting of a new constitution, and making attempts to heal the wounds of the past. Today, the country is a model African power and a prominent medical tourism hub in the legion. Its world class medical facilities, combined with a gorgeous coastline, sunny weather, and an incredible variety of wildlife, have transformed this country, making it one of the premier tourism destinations in the world.

History of Thailand

The Sukhothai Age

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The origins of the Thai people can be traced back to the 6th century AD when the first Thai residents settled in the southern Yunan and Kwangste provinces of China. Migrations southward resulted in huge settlements in the Chao Phraya River basin, and these settlers soon came under the influence of the Khmer regime. In 1238, the Thais established the Buddhist kingdom of Sukhothai. By the 13th century however, the dominance of the Khmer and Mon rulers ended, and thereafter began a golden age for the Thai people marked by peace, prosperity, and the benevolence of the ruling kings, prominent among whom was Ramkamhaeng the Great.

The Ayutthaya Period

In 1350, the powerful Ayutthaya rulers conquered the Sukhothai kingdom and began to exert Khmer influences on the people. Monarchs assumed the title of “devaraja” (god kings) and began the process of extending their rule to include neighboring principalities. In 1767, the Burmese captured Ayutthaya but could not manage to retain control for long. A young general named Phya Taksin managed to escape to Chantaburi from where, seven months after the fall of Ayutthaya, he marched to the capital with his followers and overran the Burmese. In order to prevent further Burmese attacks and also to develop sea trade, General Taksin established a new capital city on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River at Thonburi. Taksin, however, did not have the most spectacular of reigns. The lack of a strong central authority after the Burmese invasion had resulted in the disintegration of the provinces, and as a result, most of his rule was spent salvaging and reuniting the scattered regions.

The Rattanakosin Period

After the death of General Taksin, General Chakri was crowned the first King of the Chakri dynasty in 1782, choosing for himself the name Rama I. Some of his many accomplishments as king were the shifting of the capital from Thonburi to Bangkok and the construction of the Grand Palace. His successors Rama II, King Nang Klao, and Rama III made great contributions to Thai society including fostering of trade with China and developingof relations with Western countries. It was Rama IV, immortalized in “The King and I” who cemented treaties with European powers, thereby avoiding the specter of colonization. In fact, Thailand has the proud distinction of being the only country in South East Asia never to have been colonized. Many social and economic reforms were initiated during the reign of Rama IV. It was during the reign of King Prajadhipok that a bloodless coup abolished absolute monarchy and established a constitutional system of monarchy. The country’s first democratic government was inaugurated in 1939, and its name was officially changed from Siam to Thailand meaning the “land of the free.”

Modern History

Since then the country has seen a range of governing styles, from military dictatorships to elected governments and has had a total of seventeen constitutions. However, all governments including the current military junta who took power in the fall of 2006, acknowledge the King as the head of the state.

History of Malaysia

Early History

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Malaysia is a thriving modern medical tourism destination with a long and rich history. There is evidence to suggest that much of peninsular Malaysia was inhabited at least 50,000 years ago. One of the earliest people here were the Senoi, who are believed to have been the descendants of the first Austronesians, the ethnic group that can be traced down to present day Malays.

In the first millennium, much of the Malay archipelago, which includes Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, East Timor, and Brunei, was ruled by the Srivijaya Empire. During the second and third centuries CE, there were invasions by Indian kings, including the Tamil Chola emperor, Rajendra Chola. Eventually, Srivijaya control of the region weakened, and soon, the Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took over control of the archipelago.

Islam arrived in the 15th century, with the advent of Sultan Iskandar Shah, ruler of the Malacca Sultanate. The Malacca kings ruled for more than a century, and their kingdom included all the areas which now come under peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and Sumatra. In 1511, Malacca fell to Portugal, and after this began a battle for control of the Malay archipelago among the Portuguese and the Sultans of Aceh and Johur. In 1641, the Dutch, who had forged an alliance with the Sultanate of Johur, gained control of the archipelago.

British Rule

The British entered the picture when Penang was leased by the Sultan of Kedah to the East India Company in 1786. Soon, they became heavily involved in administrative affairs through what was called “gunboat diplomacy” – the use of armed power to demonstrate might over a foreign people. The British moved in to settle conflicts between Chinese and Malay gangsters, and cemented their control of the region through the Pangkor Treaty of 1874.

Calls for independence from Britain soon grew and reached a peak during the Second World War when Britain announced plans to unify the administration of Malaysia under a single Malay state.

Modern History

Finally, after years of guerilla operations by anti-insurgents, British control over Malaya ended, and Malaysia was formed in 1963. The new federation included Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak. In 1965, Singapore broke away to become a separate state.

Malaysia today continues to maintain a delicate balance among the most important ethnic groups in the country. This medical tourism center benefited immensely during the Asian economic boom of the 1980s, and many of the success stories of that boom can be seen in the high-tech hospitals and health care centers for which the country is known.

History of Mexico

Early History

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Historians have found evidence of humans in the medical tourism hub of Mexico, going back more than 40,000 years. The first known society of ancient Mexico, however, was the Olmec civilization which was mainly settled in modern-day San Lorenzo and La Venta. The Mayans, considered by many to be the most accomplished of all pre-Columbine American civilizations, thrived here between 250 and 900 AD. They were responsible for the development of the calendar and a writing system. At the height of their power, the Mayans built magnificent cities surrounded by temples and palaces. Historians believe that overpopulation and ecological destruction brought about the decline of this great civilization.

Towards the last days of the Mayas, the Toltec civilization began to settle in central Mexico. They built the city of Tula, which is estimated to have been home to at least 40,000 inhabitants. The Aztecs were the last of the pre-Columbine civilizations, and they gained prominence around 1427 by forging alliances with the Toltec and the Mayans. Soon, the Aztecs were a civilization of more than 5 million people. The capital city they built, Tenochtitlan, at the time the most populated city in the world, is located underneath modern-day Mexico City.

Spanish Rule

Spain arrived in Mexico with Hernán Cortés leading the colonial charge in the 1520s. It was renamed Nuevo Espana, and the native tribes were enslaved by the Spanish. Catholicism also arrived through missionaries who went about converting the natives to Christianity.

In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Spain, and this weakened the position of the Spanish empire. Taking advantage of this, a parish priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1810, and this started the Mexican War of Independence. Although independence was declared that year, it wouldn’t really come until 1821, when the Treaty of Cordoba was signed.

Post Independence

Independent Mexico had a string of strongmen and dictators ruling at various times, which resulted in the instability that marked much of 19th century Mexican history. In 1846, border conflicts with the US brought war, which resulted in large tracts of land (including much of modern-day Arizona and New Mexico), being sold and/or given to the US.

By 1910, the Mexicans had become tired of the unequal distribution of wealth in their country, and this dissatisfaction triggered the Mexican Revolution. In 1935, President Lazaro Cardenas executed several land reforms, including a communal sharing system of the farmland. This move was of great benefit to the citizens as well as the country’s economy, and development increased at a rapid pace.

Today, Mexico is a rising economic power, and one of the most visited medical tourism destinations in this part of the Americas. Its native and alternative native healing therapies have long attracted American medical tourism patients from across the border. Mexico has also established a reputation as a major cosmetic surgery hub.

History of Singapore

Early History

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Singapore has been known by a plethora of names through out its history, which is one of the reasons why the earliest accounts of its origins are sketchy at best. Chinese historical accounts refer to a region called Pu-lou-chung, roughly translated as “the island at the tip of a peninsula.” Temasek is the earliest reference to what’s now known as Singapore. Temasek was an early settlement inhabited by people who apparently had trading relations with China. Before long, the settlement came under the control of the Sumatra based Srivijaya Empire. It was under the Srivijayas that the island was christened with its present name, albeit incorrectly. One of the Srivijaya leaders alighting at the island during a thunderstorm thought he saw a lion and proceeded to name the island “Singapura” or “the city of the lion.” Medical tourism vacationers will be tickled to know that experts have since debunked his account – it couldn’t possibly have been a lion since lions have never populated these parts. In the 16th century, Singapore passed into the hands of the Sultan of Johur, under whose control it stayed until the British came calling in 1819.

British Occupation and the Raffles Story

The British East India Company, always on the lookout for newer trading ports, entrusted one of its officers Sir Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant Governor of Bencoolen with the responsibility of finding a new port though which they could establish supremacy over the Straits of Malacca. Raffles, a veteran of the area, had his sights set on the “city of the lion” and on 29th January 1819, landed at Singapore and proceeded to sign a treaty with the Sultan to develop the island as a trading post. In 1867 Singapore officially became a part of the Royal Crown.

Raffles didn’t stick around to participate in the development of the island as a success story. He entrusted the administration to William Farquhar under whose able command the island quickly became a strategic business and commercial hub. For someone who is almost venerated in Singapore as the founding father of the island, Raffles was an absentee landlord. His last visit to Singapore came in 1822, only 3 years after his “founding,” and that too as a stopover on his way back to England, post-retirement. Raffles in fact had a pretty unspectacular career in the East India Company and died a penniless man in London, ravaged by syphilis. Singapore, however, credits him for much of its success, and you’ll find scores of statues and landmarks dedicated to him on your medical tourism vacation.

Modern History

In 1941, the Japanese, after bombing Pearl Harbor, occupied Singapore and what followed are widely considered some of the darkest days in the island’s history. When the Japanese surrendered, Singapore reverted back to its colonial status until 1959 when it was granted internal self-governance.

In 1963, Singapore joined the Malaysian federation, but was expelled two years later when then-Prime Minister Lee Yuan Kew refused to allow Malays special economic privileges that would have been detrimental to the interests of the ethnic Chinese population. On August 9, 1965 Lee, who for long held a dream of a united Malaysia and Singapore, announced the formal expulsion from the Malaysian federation and the establishment of an independent Singapore.

Today Singapore is one of the most prosperous nations in the world with a per capita income that’s on par with many Western countries. It is the world’s busiest port and remains a prominent, economic, commercial, and medical tourism center.

Taxila Museum

The foundation of Taxila Museum was laid by …………………..in ………………….. It is a site museum in so far as all the material exhibited here have been excavated in the different sites of Taxila. The museum was designed in the Greek style and galleries were set up by Sir John marshall, the diretor General of Archaeology in British India.

In the six galleries of the museum the material has been presented subject wise. Original objects have been exhibited in the wall showcases and in the middle of the halls are table showcases. The present museum building is only one-fourth of the original plan. The remaining parts are yet to be completed.

As we enter, we come to the main big hall, which shows in its middle a complete stupa from the Buddhist monastery of Mohra Moradu. To its left is an archaeological map of Taxila. On its right and left are table showcases exhibiting small finds. If we turn behind and look at the wall show cases we see schist stone sculptures on two sides. They present scenes from the life of the Buddha, other Buddhisattvas, and examples of Gandhara Art. Inone corner are red sand stone sculptures, and on the other wall are two sandstone sculptures, one of a Budhisattva and another of a Suri-god.

In the next hall to the left are stucco sculptures from Mohra Moradan in the wall showcases. To the left is Buddhist sculptures brought from Jaulian monastery. On the floor are are glazed tiles of the Kushana period.

In the third hall on this side we have stucco heads on the hall showcases. The heads show different faces and hairstyles. The big Buddha heads are typically Gandharan in style. In the middle of the hall area stupa within railing, some relic caskets, and a sleeping Buddha from Bhamala monastery.

As we trace our steps back to the main hall, we can enter a small fourth hall, which shows silver and gold jewelry and coins of the local kings. The gold jewellery presents foreign as well as local styles.

We can again retrace our steps to the main hall and proceed to the right to the fifth small hall. The first important object is an Aramaic inscription of King Piyadasi Asoka. Then we see a series of inscription written in Kharoshthi and also in Brahmi on paper. Then we see small terracotta figurines and a small terra cotta ceremonial tank model. On the opposite well we see iron objects; arrowheads, nails, horsestrips and plough.

Finally we enter the last sixth hall, where, on the wall showcases we see silver glasses of different shapes, bowls and spoons, toilet trays, small pottery pieces, bowls and plates of terracotta and pottery arranged for distillation. On the floor are big storage jars, pestle and mortar and saddle querns.

HISTORY OF MULTAN

IKHLAQ AHMED QADRI in the context of the celebrations of 5000 years of Multan, beginning from November 2000 provides interesting information about this ‘city of Saints’.

Multan as a tradition which goes back to the Bronze Age. Rich in archaeology and the history, the city has a lot to offer for those in search of culture. But, more then anything, it’s the monuments that give the region a glory of its own.

Old Multan is actually a fortified city built on a huge ancient mound and with six gates set at different places. The six entrances to the old city are; Dault Gate, Bohar Gate and Lahori Gate. Three of these (Dault, Lahori and Pak) Gates have been destroyed while the remaining three are intact, although even these are actually reconstruction, from the British period. All the existing gates are of one and the same design. A circular road, locally known as the "alang" runs right around the old city, but inside the fortification wall and not outside it as in common on other old cities. However, a modern circular road also runs on the outer side of the city. The walled city is densely populated with narrow streets, winding lanes and old style houses built quite close to each other. As Multan was once a centre for wood carving, some of its old houses have good specimens of woodwork on their windows and doors.

Being a historical city, Multan is full to tombs, mosques and other monuments of Muslim origin. Apart from historical buildings, there are two other objects in the city which have almost come to be regarded as monuments on account of their excellent workmanship. These are the two huge, carved wood "Tazzia models", which are the best specimens of craftsmanship.

Multan, it is not surprising, is also known as "Mandinatu-Aulya", the city of saints. It has tombs, mosques and "Khanqahs" (hospices) of saints. Keeping in view their historical value, priceless art work, architecture style and craftsmanship involved, all these monuments are beautifully decorated and ornamented with blue titles, fresco-paints and mosaic work, and some with the delightful and soothing Kashi and Naqashi work for which Multan is famous.

Multan was an important city even before Islam but it gained importance after the arrival of Islam. Hence most of the crafts and monuments of artistic value are clearly influenced by Islam.

1. THE HISTORICAL TOMBS

The history of Multan’s Muslim architecture begins with the Muslim conquest. Little is known about the architecture of Multan prior to the 11th century, though elsewhere in Pakistan we can trace the genesis of Muslim architecture from the 8th century A.D. During the 13th and 14th century, a new style of architecture was introduced for funerary memorials of the Muslims in and around Multan the style begin with the tomb of Baha-ud-din Zakariya and culminated in the mausoleum of Shah Rukn al-Din Rukn-I- Alam, which has been admired as "one the most splendid memorial ever erected in the honour of the dead.

These two mausoleums served as perfect models for the future architecture. The architects continued to imitate them for well over six hundred years. The popularity of the style did not lessen even when the more refined and gorgeous Mughal style of Rukn-e-Alam is the beautiful tomb of Sultan Ali Akbar at Suraji Miani near Multan, which was erected in the Mughal period (992/1585).

Some of the common features of all mausolea in Multan are their tapering walls, single dome and the glazed tile decoration on the exterior. Another widespread feature is a wooden canopy, over the main grace. Decorated with carving and grills, the ceiling of the canopy is always adorned with glazed tiles of different motifs. Occasionally the grills are made of marble, ornamented with beautiful geometric designs.

• THE TOMB OF SAINT BAHAUDDIN ZAKARYA

Standing at the northeastern side of the old fort which is situated on the high mound, is the tomb of Shikh-al-Kabir, Bahauddin Abu Mohammed Zakariya Al-Qurashi. The tomb occupies the centre of a vast oblong open area measuring 260 feet N.S by 203 feet E.W and is enclosed by a perimeters brick wall. It has two main gates one on the east and the other on the West Side. There is a vow of fourteen "Hujras" on the north for the "Zaireen".

The tomb was almost completely ruined during the siege of Multan in1848 AD by the British army but was repaired immediately by Makhdum Shah Mahmud. There is no original inscription on the body of the tomb to show the date of its construction and the subsequent repairs. However, from the fact that here lies the great Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya who had erected it himself during his prime time, it can be said that it belongs to the early decades of the 13th century. The Shaikh died on the 7th of Safar (661/21 December 1262).

• THE TOMB OF SHAH RUKN-E-ALAM

The mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam is also situated on the fort mound. The Shaikh was the son of Pir Sadar-Al-Din Arif born at Multan on the 9th of Friday Ramazan 649/26 November 1251. He was the grandson and successor of Shaikh Baha-Al-Din Zakariya.

Shaikh Rukn-i-Alam (Rukn-al-Din) died on the 7th of Friday (735/3 Jamadial-Awwal, January 1335). He was buried in the mausoleum of his grandfather, according to his own will. After sometime, however, his coffin was transferred to the present mausoleum. It was constructed, according to a popular belief, by Ghiyas-al-Din Tughluq (1340-1350) during the days of his governorship of Depalpur, but was given by Feruz Shah Tughluq to the descendents of Shah Rukn-I-Alam for the latter’s burial. The mausoleum of Rukn-I-Alam has been admired by not only the travelers and chroniclers but also by the art-historians and archaeologist who wrote the architectural history of the subcontinent.

The tomb was built on octagon plan, 90 ft in diameter with walls which are 414 ft high and 13.3 ft thick. The mausoleum was constructed with burnt bricks and supported by timber framing, and decorated with tile faced bricks and wood beams. The whole structure is divided into three stories. Over the second story is a smaller Octagon, leaving a narrow3 passage all around the place, above which stands a hemispherical dome. As the tomb is standing on a high artificial mound, it is visible from about 45 kilometers. Most of its patterns are geometric-created by arranging the glazed tiles-and a living testimony to creative genius of their designers. The building is also decorated with some floral as well as calligraphic patterns. In the 1970s the mausoleum was thoroughly repaired and renovated by the Auqaf Department of the Punjab Government. The entire glittering glazed interior is the result of new tiles and brickwork done by the Kashigars of Multan. This clearly demonstrates the talents and dexterity of the local craftsmen.

• THE TOMB OF SHAH SABZWARI

The tomb of Shah Shamas Sabzwari is situated near the Aam Khas Bagh, about a quarter of a mile on the east of the ancient port on the high bank of the old bed of the Ravi which is now filled with a multitude of modern buildings. Shah shams Sabzwari was a celebrated "Ismaili Dai". Very little is known about Shams Sabzari’s life. According to a popular legend, he arrived in Multan at the time of Shaikh Baha-al-Din Zakariya. He breathed his last at the age of 111 years in 675/1276 and was buried in Multan.

The main features of the tomb are similar to those of the city’s other major tombs. It has a square hall in an Octagon shape topped by a high dome. There is a verandah all-round the grave-chamber, with fine arches in every side and a single entrance to the hall. In the courtyard, which is at a lower level than that of the verandah, there is small mosque. Like other decorated tombs of Multan, this tomb is also ornamented with Kaashi tile work and Naqashi work. But recently a fire damaged its entrance seriously.

• THE TOMB OF SHAH YOUSUF GARDEZI

This famous tomb is situated near the Bohar Gate. Its building is quite different from the city’s other tombs, with a rectangular hall and a flat, dome-less roof. The hall, which has a small door towards the end of one of its longer sides, is constructed in a big compound. On one side of the compound stands the large hall of an imambargah. The tomb’s present building is a completely renovated one. The rectangular building is thoroughly covered with the blue Multani tiles, decorated with countless floral and geometric patterns arranged in large rectangles, square and border. The skyline is a miniature replica of a fort’s battlement and has a row of arches with borders raised in relief. Below the parapet wall runs a continuous calligraphic border on all four sides. The standard of this calligraphy, however, is not very high. Only blue and while have been used, the motifs include a rich variety of floral patterns.

• THE MAUSOLEUM OF SULTAN ALI AKBAR

This tomb is situated in Suraj Miani, a locality in the northwest of the ancient city. Sultan Ali Akbar was a saint of Islamic order, and was the great grandson of Shams-Sabzwari. This is the only epigraphical evidence available about the saint on the façade of the mausoleum, however, the tomb is a very important contribution towards the adoption assimilation and spread of Multani architecture where almost every characteristic of the Rukn-I-Alam’s tomb including the octagonal plan, tapering turrets, the three storied well balanced and harmonious elevation, embellished with colourful tiles revetment, and screened window opening, his some horizontal as well oblique so also noticeable. It is because of this that the monument has been nicknamed the "Little Rukn-i-Alam". It has glazed style design used according to the available space. The mausoleum stands on a six feet high square platform.

• Tomb of Hafiz Muhammad Jamal

This tomb is situated near Aamkhas Bagh surrounded with thick heavy wall of small bricks. The main square building includes a large hall, surrounding veranda and a Majlis Khana.

The tomb was built in 19th century during the reign of Ranjit Singh ( 1810). The land for the tomb was given by Sawanmal, the governor of Multan in those days. The main building was constructed under the supervision of Khawaja Khuda Bakhsh "Tami Waly" and Khawaja Muhammad Isa of Khanpur. With passage of time the building and its decoration were badly damaged, although necessary repair work was carried out on the original pattern in 1972-74. With the exception of the main entrance, the exterior of the tomb is very simple. However, the interior is profusely decorated with Kashi work and glass mosaics – Shisha MinaKari, While the tomb itself is exceptionally fine example of mosaic work. All the motifs and pattern are floral, with different colours.

History of Peshawar

Once standing on the top of imposing Bala-Hisar Fort in Peshawar, one could see the historic Khyber Valley- gateway that has seen traders, conquers, nomads and travellers passing through it. But today, you can only see the jungle of high concrete structures, plazas and clouds of hanging over the cityscape. So much ‘development’ has taken place in the historic city.

Zaheer-ud-Din Babur crossed the Khyber Pass in the Sixteen Century on his way from Kabul, and ordered to strengthen the Fort of Peshawar known as Bala-Hisar (the high Fort). The Fort became a symbol of his victory on this side of the Khyber Pass. Sikhs and British during their rule reinforced Bala-Hisar for different reasons through.

The history of the fort must surely to that of the city, but the early days are marked in mystery. It is tempting, however, to see this as the site of fortification protected by a moat that was visited and described by the Chinese travellers like Hsuan Tsang and later Ruder Kipling. Presently Bala-Hisar fort houses headquarters of a prestigious Frontier Corps- the defenders of the mountains. Many kings have stayed in this Fort cum Royal residence in the past, contemplating their strategic moves to consolidate their gains.

The Mosque Mahabat Khan, Peshawar’s outstanding architecture legacy, in Jeweller’s Bazar was constructed by the Governor of Peshawar Mahabat Khan Mirza Lerharsib, in 1630 during the era of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan. The Mosque was desecrated and badly damaged by the Sikhs in early nineteen century and later when the fire broke out in 1898. The British renovated it for the first time and brought back some of its grandeur.

Presently it is being looked after by the Auqaf Department and seem in an urgent need of attention. Intricate naqqashi is fading and creaks have snacked in the courtyard as well as in the walls of the grand mosque.

For-tiered Cunningham clock tower erected at the turn of the century on the eve of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee other gems in the history of Peshawar that catch the eye of any passer by.

The famous Chowk Yadgar, is located in the amidst of wide and sprawling convergence point of different major roads and bazaars of the city, have witnessed agitation stemming from religious, political and international issues in the country. Commemorative square was originally named in the memory of British Colonel Hastings. In 1969, the square was dedicated to the heroes of 1965 Indo-Pakistan war.

Edward’s Collage was established in 1901 and named in the memory of famous administrative Sir Herbert Edward as missionary boarding school. Later, Haji Sahib of Turangzai laid down the foundation of Islamia collage in 1911. The collage has magnificent frontage facing Jamrud Road with its domes, kiosks and pinnacles rising above the green trees, which contrast sharply with red brick ornate building. The architectural taste is peculiarly of Mughal with a touch of colonial style. Three domed mosque adjacent to the collage is also of the artistic pleasure.

The British made Peshawar their frontier headquarters. They also added a new part to the historic city: typical colonial garrison with Gora Bazaar, church, single men barracks, bungalows and cantonment Railway Station. The blend of colonial and Mughal architecture, shady trees, flower beds along pathways and spacious

Houses in garrison in contrast to the multi storied residences in the city still stand out boldly.

Cosmopolitan character of Qissa Khawani Bazaar-Piccadilly of Peshawar is lined with its traditional kehwa khanas, Tikka, Chapli Kabab and dry fruit shops along with modern show rooms of leather ware and bright coloured garments. The stories of the Amirs of Bokhara and the Khans of Khiva and regional love of ‘Adam and our Khani have been substituted by satellite receivers continuously breaking news and telling amazing tales of fiction from all over the world. General Evitable, the Italian mercenary who was appointed governor of Peshawar by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, built the bazaar in the present shape in the early nineteenth century. Among tourist, it is still best known Bazaar of the city. Afghan refugees who came to Peshawar as a result of Soviet occupation have added yet another dimension in the character of the city in general this bazaar in particular where they can be seen doing business from exchanging money to selling Kehwa.

In a grand Victorian hall, the Peshawar Museum houses one of the world’s best collection of Gandhara art, including stupas depicting the Buddha’s stupa collection presents a clear picture of life of Peshawar Valley during first four centuries A.D. when Peshawar was the capital of a vast empire. Handicrafts, tools and cloths of different tribes in the ethnological portion I the museum are also interesting and throw light on the cultural heritage of the region.

Life during the early days may be severed in old city. Historic houses having bay windows, jharoka and naqqashi work that may be reminiscent of Gandhara. Persian or Greek art are still servicing against all odds.

Sethi houses built during 1830-34, wood - work added in them in 1983, are good specimen of the past. Expert from International Union of Conservation have already carried out a survey for conservation of the houses and the result is still awaited . but the requirement is that Archaeology Department, city development agencies and real estate developers, all should work for preservation of legendary character of the city holding thousands of secrets.

Beyond history, heritage and culture, Peshawar faces all problems urbanization. City once famous for gardens and flowers is turning Grey. A case study of Peshawar has revelled that the city has lost 2700 acres of agriculture land during the two decades (1965-85). This in the addition to 400 of acres of vacant land that has been also eaten up by expending urban functions. In the same period, the land under parks and green space has shrunk from 163 to 75 acres.

With such thick layer of history compressed so tightly, Peshawar today is continuously growing and expanding. The need of the hour is that the concerned authorities should make plans for conserving its heritage otherwise we will lose our rich culture.